:^^w*«^'*-'r: 


LIBRARY 


"•;'•>. 


JUDGING 
HUMAN  CHARACTER 


BY    HARRY    L.    HOLLINGWORTH 

JUDGING  HUMAN   CHARACTER 

THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    FUNCTIONAL 
NEUROSES 

ADVERTISING  AND  SELLING 
Principles  of  Appeal  and  Response 

VOCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

APPLIED  PSYCHOLOGY 
(With  A.  T.  Poffenberger,  Jr.) 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 
Publishers  New  York 


T216C 


JUDGING 
HUMAN  CHARACTER 

BY 

H.  L.  HOLLINGWORTH 

professor  of  psychology,  barnard  college,  columbia 
university;  author  of  "advertising  and  selling: 

PRINCIPLES    of    appeal    AND    RESPONSE,"     "VOCATIONAL 
GY  O 
ETC. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK      : ;       1922       ; ;      LONDON 


H4 


EDUC. 

PSYCH. 

LIBRARY 


COPYRIGHT,    1922,    BY 

D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 


PRINTED   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES   OF  AMERICA 


TO 

A  GROUP  OF  BOYHOOD  COMRADES 

E.  LeGRANDE  cherry,  C.  LeROY  CHERRY, 

J.  REID  green,  GLENN  N.  VENRICK, 

EDW.  L.  WITTE 


4Rai 


'-'2 


PREFACE 

The  following  chapters  present,  in  organized 
arrangement,  part  of  the  material  included  in  a 
series  of  lectures  on  vocational  and  industrial 
psychology.  Only  those  topics  are  considered 
which  bear  more  or  less  directly  on  the  appraisal 
of  human  character,  for  definite  and  usually  for 
practical  purposes.  The  book  does  not  undertake 
to  outline  plans  for  vocational  guidance,  nor  to 
prescribe  specific  procedures  in  personnel  work. 
It  offers,  instead,  a  general  and  nontechnical 
survey  of  the  principle  methods  relied  on  in  judg- 
ing human  traits. 

Traditional  methods  are  criticized,  and  effort 
is  made  to  suggest  improvement  in  the  technic 
of  applying  these  methods  or  in  interpreting  the 
results  derived  from  their  use.  The  present 
status  of  the  methods  of  mental  measurement  in 
various  fields  is  surveyed,  in  the  endeavor  to 
communicate  a  general  understanding  of  the 
principles  underlying  these  methods.  No  attempt 
is  made  to  present  nor  to  advocate  special  tests  or 
scales  in  any  of  the  fields  considered,  but  refer- 
ences are  given  in  the  bibliography  which  should 

vii 


yiii  PREFACE 

serve  to  lead  the  reader  to  a  more  detailed 
acquaintance  with  the  special  methods  in  the  fields 
of  his  own  particular  interests. 

The  book  is  not,  therefore,  intended  primarily 
for  the  professional  psychologist,  but  for  the 
general  reader,  for  the  student,  the  teacher,  the 
business  man,  foreman,  executive,  or  personnel 
specialist,  to  whom  the  technical  journals  are 
unfamiliar,  inaccessible  or  unintelligible. 

Readers  familiar  with  the  writer's  previous 
publications  in  this  general  field,  especially  with 
Vocational  Psychology  (Appleton,  1916)  and 
Applied  Psychology  (with  A.  T.  Poifenberger, 
Appleton,  1917)  will  observe  that  some  of  the 
tables  of  data  previously  published  are  here  made 
use  of  again.  Such  results,  however,  have  usually 
been  extended,  modified  or  submitted  to  more 
detailed  interpretation  and  application.  The  last 
six  chapters  also  deal  with  topics  considered  in 
the  earlier  publications.  These  are  topics  which 
have  undergone  considerable  development  during 
the  years  that  have  elapsed  since  the  earlier  publi- 
cation, and  the  present  chapters  serve  to  indicate 
the  general  nature  and  direction  of  that  progress. 
In  some  ways  the  present  volume  may  be  con- 
sidered   supplementary    to    the    earlier    book, 


PREFACE  ix 

Vocational  Psychology,  in  so  far  as  it  surveys 
the  contemporary  status  of  some  of  the  problems 
or  methods  indicated  in  that  book. 

Systematic  attempts  to  measure  and  appraise 
the  qualities  of  men  and  women  play  a  conspicuous 
role  in  the  program  of  modern  experimental 
psychology.  Even  when  methods  and  results  lack 
completeness  and  finality,  it  is  well  to  bring 
together  the  various  lines  of  development  in  the 
form  of  a  survey  of  present  accomplishment.  To 
give  such  a  survey  was  the  purpose  of  the  course 
of  lectures  which  served  as  the  basis  for  the 
chapters  of  this  book.  Two  appendices  have  been 
added.  In  one  is  given  a  selected  bibliography 
arranged  under  the  chapter  headings  of  the  book. 
In  the  other  is  presented  a  series  of  laboratory 
exercises  which  have  been  found  useful  for  demon- 
stration purposes  or  for  general  class  use  in 
connection  with  courses  in  Mental  Measurement, 
Vocational  Psychology,  Employment  Practice, 
and  similar  topics. 

To  Prof.  W.  V.  Bingham,  Prof.  A.  I.  Gates,  and 
Dr.  Georgina  S.  Gates,  the  author  is  indebted  for 
valuable  suggestions  in  connection  with  the 
preparation  of  the  manuscript. 

H.  L.  HOLLINQWORTH 

Bakwarc  College,  Coluubia  University 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  1.AGE 

I.    Diagnosing  Human  Character     ...        1 

Judgment  and  Perception — The  Data  of 
Judgment — Traditional  Methods. 


II.     Letters  op  Application 


An  Experimental  Test — Experimental  Re- 
sults— Interpretations — Improved  Technie. 

III.  Human  Character  in  Photographs    .      .       33 

Agreement  of  Judges — Unreliability  of 
Individual  Judgment  —  The  Consensus 
of  Opinion — Additional  Evidence. 

IV.  Judging  One's  Own  Characteristics      .       45 

Accuracy  of  Self -Estimates — Constant  Er- 
rors in  Self-Estimation — Qualification  of 
Judges — Improved  Technic. 

V.    The  Personal  Interview 60 

Experimental  Tests  of  Interviews — Similar 
Investigations — Improvements  in  Method. 

VI.     Recommendations  and  Testimonials  .     .       74 

Testimonial  Disagreement — The  Hierarchy 
of  Consistency — Objective  and  Subjective 
Traits. 

zi 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAFTXR  PAGB 

VII.     Common  Sources  op  Error  and  Their 

Correction      .     .     .     ...     .     .     .     ,.        91 

Special  Tendencies  of  Judgment — Testi- 
monial Validity  —  The  Elimination  of 
Variability — Rating  Scales — A  Model  In- 
quiry Form — Suggested  Improvements. 


VIII.     Measuring  Mental  Competence        .     .     112 

Tests  and  Measurements — Principles  of 
Construction — Principles  of  Expression — 
Illustrative  Test  Procedures — Analogies 
Test — Primary  Meaning  of  Test  Records — 
Choice  of  Tests — Individual  and  Group 
Methods. 


IX.    General  Competence  and  Special  Apti- 
tude  139 

Specialized  Traits — An  Experimental  Dem- 
onstration —  Temperamental  Qualities  — 
Illustrative  Cases. 


X.    The  Method  of  the  Sample    ....     151 

The  Procedure  of  Sampling — Trade  Test 
Methods — Educational  Measurement. 


XI.    Character  Analysis  through  Correla- 
tion      ..........     ...     161 

Empirical  Correlation  Procedure — A  Typi- 
cal Investigation — Differential  Tests. 


CONTENTS 


xui 


CHAPTIB 

XII.    The  Diagnosis  of  Temperament    . 

Moral  and  Social  Traits — The  Psycho- 
neurotic Inventory — The  Significance  of 
Handwriting — Tests  of  Aggressiveness — 
The  Association  Methods — Measurements 
of  Suggestibility — Detecting  Moods  and 
Emotions — General  Conclusions. 


PAGJ 

179 


XIII.      PSYCHOGRAPHIC  METHODS 


201 


Psychographic  Technic — Typical  Psycho- 
graphic  Profiles — ^Uses  of  the  Profile 
Method. 


APPENDICES 


A.    Bibliography 


EXERCISES 

I.  Letters  of  Application     .... 

II.  Human  Character  in  Photographs 

III.  Judging  One's  Own  Characteristics 

IV.  The  Personal  Interview    .      .      .      .. 
V.  Recommendations  and  Testimonials 

VI.  Rating  Scales 

VII.  General  Principles  of  Tests  . 

VIII.  Measuring  General  Competence 

IX.  Measurement  of  Special  Aptitudes 

X.  Measures  of  Knowledge  and  Skill    . 

XI.  Educational  Measurement    . 

XII.  The  Correlation  Methods 

XIII.  Temperamental  Characteristics 

XIV.  Psychographic  Methods  .... 

XV.  Examination  of  an  Individual  . 

XVI.  Installation  of  Employment  Supervisor 
Index 


PAGE 

215 


B.  Experiments  and  Laboratory  Exercises  .  225 


226 
228 
231 
234 
237 
239 
242 
244 
246 
248 
250 
252 
256 
258 
260 
262 
265 


•> 

4 


JUDGING 
HUMAN  CHARACTER 

CHAPTER  I 
DIAGNOSING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

The  diagnosis  of  human  character  is  an  enter- 
prise in  which  all  men,  women  and  children 
engage.  From  infancy  to  senility  we  are  impelled 
to  attempt  it,  and  to  venture  our  own  hopes  on 
the  accuracy  of  our  judgment.  Personal  adjust- 
ments, family  life,  social  companionship,  business 
relations,  politics  and  diplomacy  alike  depend  on 
more  or  less  accurate  knowledge  of  the  qualities 
of  men.  Even  a  dog,  to  be  happy,  must  learn  to 
discriminate  between  the  signs  of  friendliness  and 
those  of  an  evil  intention. 

Judgment  and  Perception 
In  most  situations,  however,  it  is  the  perception 
of  character,  rather  than  the  judgment  of  it,  on 
which  we  rely.     The  distinction  between  these 

two  methods,  though  not  to  be  sharply  drawn,  is 

1 


,2;  ;  \    JjUDQINa  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

nevertheless  essential.  Through  repeated  and 
prolonged  experience  with  another,  in  varied  cir- 
cumstances and  under  varied  provocations,  we 
come  to  know  his  character.  For  by  character  we 
mean  essentially  the  characteristic  modes  of  be- 
havior, the  characteristic  attitudes,  reactions  and 
capacities.  Prolonged  acquaintance  gives  as 
direct  a  perception  of  character,  in  this  sense,  as 
it  does  of  the  qualities  of  foods  and  climates  or 
the  properties  of  physical  objects. 

Judgment  of  character,  as  distinguished  from 
its  perception,  is  a  more  indirect  process,  in 
which,  from  a  momentary  observation  or  a  cross 
section  of  the  life  of  another,  we  attempt  to  esti- 
mate its  general  quality  and  tenor.  Judgment,  in 
this  sense,  is  diagnosis.  It  relies  on  symptoms, 
signs,  clues  and  incomplete  evidence.  It  is  an 
inference  from  the  quality  of  a  detail  to  the  quality 
of  the  larger  whole. 

Whether  we  judge  or  whether  we  perceive 
character  will  thus  depend  in  part  on  the  degree 
of  acquaintance — on  the  amount  of  information  at 
our  disposal.  The  total  stranger  and  the  indi- 
vidual only  occasionally  seen,  we  must  judge. 
The  character  of  our  more  intimate  associates  we 
know  directly,  from  having  more  fully  experienced 


DIAGNOSING  HUMAN  CHARACTER       3 

it.  For  the  character  of  a  man  is  not  some  hidden 
substance  or  possession,  nor  is  it  a  mysterious 
spiritual  essence.  A  man's  character  is  his  actual 
behavior,  when  all  of  his  conduct  is  considered. 
Lovableness  is  just  the  degree  to  which  people  are 
fond  of  us ;  kindliness  and  benevolence  are  present 
to  just  the  degree  that  people  are  actually  grati- 
fied and  comforted  by  our  conduct.  Just  as  the 
value  of  a  commodit}^  depends  on  what  people  will 
actually  pay  for  it,  so  human  traits  are  consti- 
tuted by  the  degree  to  which  they  are  actually 
manifest.  A  single  bid  at  an  auction  may  not  tell 
the  whole  story  of  an  article's  worth,  nor  an"^'^' 
isolated  symptom  disclose  the  whole  of  a  patient's  \ 
disease;  neither  may  the  single  act  of  a  man 
reveal  his  whole  character.  But  the  final  bid  and 
the  differential  symptom  have  high  significance. 
So  also  may  some  of  a  man's  acts  be  more  signifi- 
cant than  others. 

The  earlier,  in  our  acquaintance  with  another, 
we  seek  to  formulate  and  express  his  tempera- 
ment, interest  or  ability,  the  more  we  must  rely 
on  judgment  and  the  less  on  full  perception. 
Judgment,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  use  the  term, 
is  an  indirect  approach  to  knowledge  through  the 
interpretation  of  signs,  cross  sections,  or  partial 


4  JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

details.  In  many  human  relations  this  type  of 
character  estimate  must  be  relied  on,  since  full 
acquaintance  is  lacking,  or  since  action  must  be 
taken  before  full  acquaintance  can  be  attained. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  in  business  relations, 
in  which  people  must  be  selected  from  a  larger 
number,  employed  for  particular  work,  promoted 
to  positions  of  responsibility,  consulted  concern- 
ing matters  of  moment.  In  general,  any  execu- 
tive dealing  with  large  numbers  of  individuals 
can  know  these  individuals  only  indirectly  and 
through  their  occasional  acts.  Operators  must  be 
hired,  apprentices  chosen,  clerical  workers  se- 
lected, instructors  provided,  to  handle  increased 
volume  of  work  or  to  take  the  place  of  those  who 
are  dismissed,  promoted  or  retired.  In  all  such 
cases  the  executive  or  foreman  must  exercise  his 
judgment,  and  must  exercise  it  upon  such  data 
as  are  available.  It  is  our  purpose  to  examine 
somewhat  closely  and  experimentally,  this  judg- 
ment and  these  data. 

The  Data  of  Judgment 

It  should  no  longer  be  necessary  to  recapitulate 
nor  to  expose  the  many  quaint  and  bizarre  results 
of  the  very  earliest  attempts  to  systematize  the 


DIAGNOSING  HUMAN  CHARACTER       5 

signs  of  character.  The  motivation  and  the  inad- 
equacy of  these  curious  efforts  have  been  exhib- 
ited in  other  places.^  The  magic  of  primitive 
men  sought  to  produce  traits  and  attitudes  in  oth- 
ers, rather  than  to  discover  them.  Wishes  may 
indeed  go  far  in  determining  the  structure  of 
human  minds,  but  they  are  neither  prompt,  cer- 
tain, nor  sure  enough  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  an 
employment  manager,  a  teacher,  a  foreman,  a 
parent  or  an  executive.  When  fortune -making 
became  fortune-telling,  the  signs  and  details  of 
destiny  were  sought  quite  outside  the  individual's 
own  conduct,  in  stars,  omens  and  birthdays.  In 
time  these  indiscriminate  clairvoyances  also  gave 
way,  and  the  field  of  significant  signs  was  limited 
more  generally  to  the  structural  characteristics 
of  the  individual.  His  shape,  posture,  gait  and 
pigmentation,  his  contours,  wrinkles,  protuber- 
ances and  asymmetries,  all  these  were  hopefully 
believed  to  present  a  system  of  signs  and  clues  to 
his  feelings,  thought  and  conduct. 

Only  generations   of  disappointment,  chagrin 
and  absurdity  have  sufficed  to  lead  men  ta  seek- 
f or  the  signs  of  conduct  in^onduct  itself,  and  to 

1  See  Vocational  Psychology  (by  H.  L.  Hollingworth,  D.  Apple- 
ton  and  Co.,  New  York,  1916),  especially  Chapters  I  and  II. 


6         JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

place  more  reliance  on  an  actual  sample  of  be- 
havior than  on  a  presumed  astrological  or  anatom- 
ical sign  of  it.  It  is  at  the  point  of  this  shift  in 
interest  that  our  own  discussion  is  to  begin.  We 
are  to  consider  those  judgments  of  character  which 
are  based  on  conduct  itself,  and  shall  first  con- 
sider a  group  of  traditional  methods  of  judging 
character  and  aptitude.  This  will  be  followed  by 
the  account  of  more  modern  endeavors  to  place 
character  judgment  on  a  basis  of  verifiable  fact 
and  principle. 

Traditional  Methods 

The  father  of  a  lively  young  grammar  school  boy 
once  announced  that  he  was  preparing  to  have 
his  son  taught  pharmacy.  "When  asked  the  reason 
for  this  definite  and  early  vocational  direction 
of  the  youth,  he  replied  that  he  had  taken  great 
pains  to  observe  the  behavior  of  his  son  ever  since 
his  infancy,  and  that  he  had  decided  to  make  a 
druggist  of  him  because  *^as  a  child  he  was  so 
fond  of  pouring  things  from  one  bottle  into  an- 
other. ' ' 

During  the  recent  war  a  certain  army  hospital 
required  the  services  of  a  pharmacist,  and  one 
was  duly  requisitioned  from  headquarters.     In 


DIAGNOSING  HUMAN  CHARACTER       7 

time  the  new  pharmacist  reported  for  duty — an 
awkward,  strapping  fellow,  with  a  burly  frame  and 
dirty  hands.  ^*Are  you  a  pharmacist  T^  he  was 
asked  by  the  oflficer  in  charge.  **I  sure  am,  sir,'' 
he  replied.    **What  drug  store  did  you  work  inT' 

*  *  Oh,  I  never  worked  in  no  drug  store. ' '  *  *  You 
never  worked  in  a  drug  store  and  yet  you  say  you 
are  a  pharmacist !*'  ''Oh,  yes,  sir,  I'm  a  right 
good  farmacist.    I  worked  on  a  farm  all  my  life." 

A  contemporary  vocational  counselor  is  said 
to  receive  his  clients  in  an  office  with  no  hat  rack 
and  no  extra  chair.  The  client  enters  and  the 
counselor  abruptly  orders  him,  ''Hang  up  your 
hat !  Sit  down ! ' '  The  amazed  young  chap,  seeing 
no  place  to  hang  his  hat,  and  finding  no  chair  to 
sit  on,  does  one  of  two  thhigs :  (1)  He  may  resent 
the  insult,  register  anger,  and  perhaps  make  a 
justly  impudent  remark.  (2)  He  may  be  so 
astounded  by  the  counselor 's  unexpected  imperti- 
nence that  he  stands  awkwardly  fumbling  his  hat, 
grinning  or  blushing,  with  a  demeanor  that  is  at 
least  outwardly  meek  and  humble.  In  the  former 
case  he  is  advised  to  become  a  salesman;  in  the 
latter  he  is  advised  to  take  up  the  study  of  phar- 
macy, or  some  similar  vocation. 

These  authentic  illustrations  are  not  designed 


8  JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

to  bring  ignominy  upon  the  drug  business.  In- 
stead they  serve  to  introduce  some  of  the  tradi- 
tional methods  of  judging  character,  aptitude,  and 
interest,  based  as  they  are  on:  (1)  the-observa- 
tiaus-af^tendeiTiarent;  (2)  the  eandid^te^'state- 
mmit- of  his  own  qualifications;  and  (3)  tlie-inr-' 
pressionistic  theory  of  a  prejudiced  and  ignorant 
interviewer.  We  may  add  to  these  methods  three 
further  traditional  procedures :  (4)  The  letter  of 
application;  (5)  the^hatograph ;  and  (6)  the  rec-. 
ommendation.  Perhaps  the  last  three  methods  are 
to-day  in  better  popular  repute  than  are  the  first 
three.  But  whatever  their  repute,  their  adequacy 
deserves  investigation,  and  their  importance  mer- 
its any  improvement  that  can  be  made  upon  them. 
In  the  sections  immediately  following,  accounts 
are  given  of  various  investigations  directed  to- 
ward the  evaluation  and  improvement  of  several 
of  these  traditional  methods. 


CHAPTER  II 
LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION 

Under  modern  conditions  the  personnel  of  a 
business  or  institution  comprises  so  many  differ- 
ent individuals,  and  activities  are  carried  on  in 
such  large  centers  or  in  such  remote  districts,  that 
employees  and  assistants  must  often  be  chosen 
without  the  personal  acquaintance  of  the  superin- 
tendent or  executive.  At  least  the  initial  appli- 
cations for  a  given  place  are  often  so  numerous 
and  submitted  from  so  great  a  distance  that  even 
a  personal  interview  with  all  candidates  is  not 
feasible.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  common 
practice  to  require  each  candidate  to  submit  a 
letter  of  application,  in  which  his  or  her  qualifica- 
tions are  set  forth  and  certain  personal  data 
recorded.  Sometimes  a  standardized  or  conven- 
tionalized application  form  is  used.  More 
frequently  the  form  and  in  part  the  content  of 
the  letter  is  left  to  the  wisdom  and  discernment  of 
the  applicant.     Through  the  inspection  of  these 


10        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

letters  of  application  many  candidates  are  at 
once  rejected  and  not  further  considered.  Other 
letters  may  lead  to  more  favorable  action — the 
applicants  may  be  requested  to  call  for  a  personal 
interview,  or  may  even  be  judged  as  suitable  on 
the  basis  of  the  letter  alone. 

An  Experimental  Test 

Our  present  task  is  that  of  examining  somewhat 
more  closely  than  is  usually  done  the  judgments 
of  human  character  that  are  based  on  such  letters 
of  application.  In  order  to  secure  representative 
material  for  the  study,  a  hona-fide  advertisement 
for  a  bookkeeper  and  office  assistant  was  inserted 
in  the  ^^help  wanted"  columns  of  the  Sunday 
editions  of  two  New  York  City  newspapers.  Over 
one  hundred  letters  of  application  were  received. 
Each  gave,  in  the  applicant's  own  handwriting, 
and  on  stationery  individually  chosen,  the  main 
facts  of  the  applicant's  business  career,  education, 
experience,  and  previous  employment,  and  set 
forth  with  such  clearness  as  the  applicant  could 
command  the  particular  qualifications  for  the 
position  in  question.  From  this  large  number  of 
letters   twenty-five   were   chosen   at   random   to 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  11 

serve  as  material  for  an  experimental  investi- 
gation. 

These  letters,  each  bearing  a  key  number  to 
aid  in  its  identification,  were  presented  to  fifty 
different  judges.  One  group  of  judges  consisted 
of  business  men  and  women  who  were  constantly 
being  called  on,  in  their  actual  affairs,  to  make 
such  judgments.  Another  group  consisted  of 
professional  men  and  women,  including  a  number 
of  psychologists ;  another  group  consisted  of  mis- 
cellaneous individuals,  students,  clerical  workers, 
etc.  The  judges  were  instructed  to  place  them- 
selves in  the  position  of  a  prospective  employer 
and  to  arrange  the  twenty-five  letters  in  order  of 
merit,  as  replies  to  the  given  advertisement,  with 
respect,  first,  to  the  intelligence;  second,  the 
reliability;  third,  the  tact;  and  finally,  the  neat- 
ness, indicated  by  the  letters.  Comparison  of 
these  different  arrangements  will  at  least  reveal 
the  amount  of  agreement  shown  by  the  estimates 
of  different  judges.  If  the  disagreement  is  great, 
it  will  be  evident  that  the  estimates  of  a  single 
judge  are  unreliable. 

As  a  further  test  of  the  stability  of  such  judg- 
ments, ten  of  the  judges  were  again  approached 


12        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

after  a  month  had  elapsed  and  requested  to 
arrange  the  letters  again,  for  the  same  traits  and 
from  the  same  point  of  view  as  on  the  previous 
occasion.  This  makes  it  possible  to  determine 
how  consistent  are  the  estimates  passed  by  a  given 
judge,  and  how  far  his  estimates  vary  with  lapse 
of  time,  change  of  circumstance,  or  a  shift  of 
mood  and  disposition.  If  a  given  judge  passes 
quite  different  verdicts  on  two  different  occasions, 
on  precisely  the  same  material,  it  is  clear  that 
any  one  of  his  judgments  is  likely  to  be  unreliable. 
The  agreement  of  different  judges  and  the  con- 
sistency of  given  judges  thus  afford  criteria  for 
the  evaluation  of  character  estimates  based  on 
letters  of  application. 

Experimental  Results 

The  estimates,  some  of  them  repeated,  by  fifty 
judges,  on  twenty-five  letters,  of  four  different 
traits,  give  a  mass  of  figures  entirely  too  unwieldy 
to  repeat  here.^  We  shall  choose  for  presentation 
typical  results  by  taking  from  the  complete  tables 
the  estimates  of  the  first  ten  judges  for  ten  of  the 


1  The  complete  data  have  been  recorded  by  Lillian  C.  Walton, 
who  conducted  this  investigation,  in  her  Master's  essay,  entitled 
"A  Study  of  Judgments  of  Letters  of  Application,"  on  file  in  the 
library  of  Columbia  University. 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  13 

letters,  using  always  the  same  judges  and  the 
same  letters.  The  position  given  a  single  letter 
may  be  anywhere  from  1  to  25,  position  1  being 
the  best  for  the  trait  in  question,  and  25  being  the 
poorest. 

Estimates  of  Ten  Letters  by  Ten  Judges 
Intelligence 


Judge 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

I 

6 

24 

13 

20 

5 

3 

14-^ 

19 

12 

11 

II 

13 

15 

6 

2 

5 

16 

14 

17 

12 

18 

III 

2 

iz 

5 

22 

9  , 

6 

13 

21 

23 

14 

IV 

11 

23 

18 

13 

19 

8 

20 

25 

-9 

16 

V 

9^ 

25 

19' 

20 

3^ 

5 

18 

13 

16 

14 

VI 

17 

14 

25- 

12 

22' 

3 

5 

21 

20 

19 

VII 

^ 

'5 

9 

7 

IS- 

1 

10 

24 

15 

11 

VIII 

I 

14 

12' 

17 

C' 

10. 

13 

16 

21 

22 

IX 

11 

4 

7 

18 

16' 

3 

5 

17 

19 

23 

X 

4 

2J) 

9 

19 

5* 

8 

22 

17 

18 

16 

Tact 


Judge 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

I 

10 

24 

21 

14 

7 

4 

23 

11- 

13 

19 

II 

17 

6 

4 

5 

2 

16 

24 

25  J 

7 

19 

III 

2 

23 

3 

22 

4 

11 

17" 

16 

21 

13 

IV 

23 

18 

25 

16 

3 

7 

10 

13 

15/ 

22 

V 

10 

11 

21 

19 

13 

4 

12 

2 

22; 

5 

VI 

13 

20 

10 

16 

11 

5 

2. 

18 

17' 

2T 

VII 

5 

9 

3 

10 

4 

1 

6 

22 

14- 

23. 

VIII 

4 

5 

12 

13 

6 

10 

14 

16 

21 

2a 

IX 

10 

4 

7 

18 

16 

3 

5. 

22 

25 

21 

X 

16 

1 

2 

14 

20 

17 

21 

7 

15 

13' 

14       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Heliahility 


Judge 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

I 

6 

16 

7 

19 

14 

3 

5 

18 

11 

21 

II 

17 

6 

5 

9 

7 

19 

24 

25 

3 

21 

III 

9 

18 

4 

21 

16 

12 

17 

11 

7 

23 

IV 

17 

18 

24 

23 

1 

15 

16 

25 

4 

10 

V 

19 

20 

2 

14 

12 

17 

21 

1 

3 

4 

VI 

12 

17 

9 

19 

11 

2 

4 

21 

15 

23 

VII 

5 

13 

25 

6 

8 

1 

2 

21 

14 

12 

VIII 

4 

14 

12 

17 

6 

10 

13 

16 

21 

22 

IX 

11 

4 

7 

18 

16 

3 

5 

17 

19 

21 

X 

5 

20 

14 

18 

19 

2 

15 

11 

12 

7 

Neatness 


Judge 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

I 

7 

22 

14 

21 

11 

15 

4 

16 

9 

20 

II 

13 

21 

5 

22 

12 

14 

24 

18 

3 

17 

III 

1 

20 

3 

24 

5 

7 

16 

17 

8 

14 

IV 

11 

25 

18 

14 

8 

17 

15 

16 

6 

23 

V 

13 

25 

6 

22 

2 

9 

10 

7 

20 

21 

VI 

8 

13 

5 

23 

7 

10 

3 

19 

15 

24 

VII 

11 

13 

7 

21 

6 

2 

9 

8 

3 

23 

VIII 

4 

13 

12 

16 

6 

10 

14 

17 

21 

22 

IX 

10 

4 

7 

18 

16 

3 

5 

17 

19 

23 

X 

9 

22 

14 

18 

5 

8 

20 

15 

7 

17 

Interpretations 

These  tables,  although  the}"  do  not  show  the 
whole  range  of  variation  in  the  judgments,  are 
sufficient  to  suggest  that  this  variability  is  almost 
as  great  as  it  could  possibly  be.  In  the  case  of 
Neatness,  for  example,  the  letter  marked  ^^A'^  for 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  15 

purposes  of  identification  was  given  the  highest 
place  (1),  the  lowest  place  (25),  and  also  occupied 
positions  all  along  the  scale,  from  best  to  poorest. 
Letter  '^B^'  was  placed  as  high  as  position  4,  as 
low  as  position  25,  and  was  assigned  positions  all 
along  the  scale  by  various  judges.  Letter  *'C" 
ranged  from  2d  to  25th  place,  and  most  of  the 
other  letters  produced  similarly  scattering  ver- 
dicts. This  is  true  for  Neatness,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  in  judging  this  trait  that  the 
different  judges  agreed  most  closely, 

If  the  letters  had  been  arranged  in  purely 
chance  orders  they  would  have  had  much  the 
same  average  position  and  each  letter  would  tend 
to  occupy  each  position  in  the  scale  equally  often 
with  all  other  letters  and  all  other  positions.  And 
the  chance  deviation  of  the  various  positions  from 
this  average  would  be  a  little  over  six  steps. 
Under  the  circumstances  of  the  experiment  the 
arrangements  made  by  the  various  judges  ap- 
proach very  closely  to  chance  series.  The  aver- 
age deviations  of  the  letters  from  their  own  aver- 
age positions  are  for  Neatness  4.83  steps,  for 
Intelligence  5.52  steps,  for  Eeliability  5.82  steps, 
and  for  Tact  6.23  steps.  Only  Neatness  and  In- 
telligence show  agreement  that  is  at  all  certainly 


16        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

closer  than  that  which  chance  shufflings  of  the 
letters  would  have  produced.  Even  here  the 
tables  show  that  the  letter  that  one  judge  would 
have  carefully  filed  for  future  reference  in  a  per- 
sonal interview  with  the  applicant,  another  judge 
would  without  further  consideration  have  thrown 
into  the  waste  basket.  Certainly  a  method  that 
results  in  such  disagreement  cannot  be  justified 
merely  on  the  grounds  of  its  simplicity,  cheapness, 
and  antiquity.  Its  use  results  in  unfairness  both 
to  the  judge  and  to  the  applicant. 

The  facts  are  still  more  striking  when  we  con- 
sider the  consistency  with  which  the  same  judge 
reacts  on  different  occasions,  although  judging 
precisely  the  same  letters,  after  having  in  the 
main  forgotten  his  previous  verdicts.  Here  we 
may  make  use  of  a  method  of  measuring  resem- 
blance through  statistical  formulae.  Mathematical 
treatment  of  the  figures  can  be  made  to  yield  co- 
efficients of  similarity  between  two  such  arrange- 
ments of  materials.  Purely  chance  agreement 
will  on  this  basis  yield  a  coefficient  of  .00.  Com- 
plete agreement  will  give  a  coefficient  of  +  1.00, 
and  completely  reversed  arrangements  will  give 
—  1.00.  The  various  degrees  of  similarity  or  dif- 
ference will  give  coefficients  ranging  any\vhere 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  17 

from  +  1.00  through  .00  to  - 1.00.  Thus  a  co- 
efficient of  +  .50  would  represent  resemblance  of 
two  series  part  way  between  perfect  similarity 
and  purely  chance  agreement.  These  measures 
may  be  given  a  more  concrete  meaning  by  refer- 
ence to  the  resemblances  of  people.  Children  of 
the  same  family  resemble  each  other  in  physical 
appearance  more  than  do  children  chosen  at  ran- 
dom. And  twins  resemble  each  other  still  more 
closely  than  do  brothers  or  sisters  who  are  not 
twins.  Studies  have  been  made  in  which  children 
have  been  measured  in  various  physical  character- 
istics, and  the  degree  of  resemblance  stated  in 
just  such  coefficients  of  similarity  as  those  we 
have  described.  "When  this  is  done  it  is  fomid 
that  children  of  the  same  family  give  coefficients 
of  resemblance  of  about  +  .40.  Twins,  however, 
give  coefficients  of  about  +  .80.  We  may  then  say, 
by  way  of  concrete  illustration,  that  judgments 
that  agree  with  each  other  by  a  coefficient  of  .40 
are  as  similar  as  children  of  the  same  family, 
while  judgments  that  give  coefficients  of  similarity 
as  great  as  .80  are  as  alike  as  twins.^  The  follow- 

2  Readers  interested  in  the  detailed  statistical  methods  used  in 
such  computations  will  find  them  discussed  in  most  of  the  modern 
books  on  statistical  methods.  It  is  well  to  have  the  concept  fairly 
clearly  in  mind  since  the  convenience  of  such  mathematical  expres- 
sions will  lead  us  to  make  considerable  use  of  them. 


18        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

iiig  table  pives  the  coefficients  of  correlation  in  the 
case  of  the  ten  judges  who  arranged  the  letters  on 
two  different  occasions.  These  correlations  meas- 
ure the  consistency  of  the  two  trials. 


Coefficients  of  Corbelation 


Judge 

Intelligence 

Tact 

Reliability 
.50 

Neatness 

Average 

2 

.59 

.40 

.67 

.54 

3 

.72 

.72 

.73 

.72 

.72 

18 

.08 

.40 

.27 

.38 

.28 

5 

.72 

.44 

.65 

.88 

.67 

20 

.60 

.63 

.20 

.44 

.47 

39 

.31 

.18 

.23 

—.14 

.21 

7 

.44 

.52 

.46 

.92 

.60 

6 

.62 

.31 

.45 

.51 

.47 

15 

.65 

.71 

.73 

.91 

.75 

1 

.63 

.42 

.52 

.71 

.57 

Medians 

.61 

.43 

.48 

.69 

.55 

The  results  show  clearly  that  two  such  arrange- 
ments on  different  occasions  are  far  from  being 
as  similar  as  twins.  Neatness  and  Intelligence 
again  give  the  most  consistent  results,  the  median 
coefficients  being  +  .G9  and  +  .Gl.  Tact  and 
Reliability  give  median  coefficients  of  +  .43  and 
+  .48,  just  about  as  much  similarity  as  exists 
between  children  of  the  same  family  in  general. 
If  these  coefficients  had  sho\vn  such  resemblance 
as  one  finds  between  twins,  the  judgments  might 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  19 

very  well  have  been  considered  stable  and  char- 
acteristic of  the  various  judges.  But  such  co- 
efficients as  we  actually  secured  indicate  that  on 
the  whole  a  given  judge  does  not  resemble  himself 
any  more  than  he  resembles  other  judges.  And 
we  have  already  had  occasion  to  see  what  diverse 
results  can  come  from  shifting  from  the  verdict 
of  one  judge  to  that  of  another. 

The  table  further  shows  that  some  judges  are 
more  consistent  in  their  ratings  than  are  others. 
Thus  judges  3,  5,  and  15  have  fairly  high  coeffi- 
cients for  all  the  traits,  their  different  arrange- 
ments being  almost  as  similar  as  twins.  Judges 
18,  and  39  on  the  other  hand  have  very  low  co- 
efficients of  consistency,  and  indeed  judge  39  in 
the  case  of  Neatness  tends  toward  verdicts  that 
are  the  reverse  of  those  of  his  earlier  arrange- 
ment, thus  giving  a  negative  coefficient  ( — .14). 

In  much  the  same  way,  if  we  take  as  our 
standard  the  average  arrangement  of  all  the 
judges,  their  combined  opinion,  and  compare  each 
judge 's  arrangements  with  this  standard,  we  find 
that  some  judges  are  more  in  accord  with  the 
group  average  than  are  others.  Some  judges 
agree  closely  with  this  standard  in  all  of  the 
traits.     Some  differ  from  it  markedly  in  all  traits. 


20        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

The  majority,  however,  agree  with  the  standard 
to  various  degrees  in  the  case  of  the  different 
traits.  There  is  so  much  disagreement  on  the 
whole  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  pick  out  any 
one  of  the  judges  as  a  '^general  expert, ''  that  is, 
one  who  in  judging  all  of  the  traits  gives  arrange- 
ments that  approximate  very  closely  to  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  of  all  the  judges.  Nor  do  the 
business  men  and  women,  who  have  had  experi- 
ence in  passing  on  such  letters  agree  any  more 
closely  with  this  consensus  of  opinion  than  do  the 
psychologists  or  the  miscellaneous  individuals. 

A  study  of  twenty -five  letters  of  application  has 
been  reported  by  Poffenberger  and  Vartanian,^ 
which  confirms  many  of  the  results  we  have  just 
considered.  The  letters  were  written  by  seniors 
in  a  training  school  for  religious  workers,  as  ap- 
plications for  a  position  in  the  kind  of  work  for 
which  they  were  in  preparation.  No  application 
form  was  used,  the  letters  being  in  the  handwrit- 
ing of  the  candidates,  and  giving  what  each  con- 
sidered to  be  the  relevant  or  significant  details  of 
his  characteristics,  qualifications,  experience  and 
training.     *' These  letters  just  as  received  were 

8  Poffenberger  and  Vartanian.  "The  Letter  of  Application  in 
Vocational  Selection,"  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  March, 
1922. 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  21 

given  in  turn  to  twelve  members  of  the  staff  of 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  with  the  request 
that  they  arrange  them  according  to  the  degree  to 
which  they  indicated  general  fitness  for  the 
position.'' 

Criteria  for  checking  up  the  validity  of  the 
judgments  of  the  letters  were  secured  in  the  fol- 
lowing way:  *^Five  teachers  from  the  staff  of 
the  training  school  furnished  three  separate 
arrangements  of  the  twenty-five  individuals  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  to  which  they  possessed  the 
three  traits,  general  ability,  intelligence  and  tact. 
In  addition  each  member  of  the  group  of  appli- 
cants arranged  his  twenty-four  associates  and 
himself  in  an  order  for  each  of  these  three  traits. 
The  conditions  for  such  estimates  were  especially 
good,  as  the  school  is  small  and  every  teacher  ha? 
very  close  association  with  his  students ;  and  the 
students  themselves  are  more  closely  associated 
than  are  students  in  the  ordinary  college. ' ' 

In  this  case,  although  it  is  not  possible  to  com- 
pare the  judgments  of  applications  with  strictly 
objective  data,  they  can  be  compared  with  judg- 
ments based  upon  actual  acquaintance,  recorded 
by  teachers  and  by  fellow  students.  When  in 
each  case  the  group  judgment  or  consensus  of 


22       JUt)GING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

opinion  is  taken  as  the  measure,  the  following 
correlations  result. 

Correlation  oir  Group  Judgment 


Group  Judgment  of  Letters 
Correlated  with 

General 

Ability 
.46 
.56 
.50 

Intelli- 
gence 

Tact 

a — Estimates  of  Fellow  Students 

b — Estimates  of  Teachers 

.44 
.58 
.44 

.18 
.20 

c — Students  and  Teachers  Combined. 

.22 

In  the  case  of  Tact  the  correlations  are  so  low 
as  to  be  very  unreliable,  and  it  will  be  remembered 
that  AValton  also  found  both  consistency  and 
agreement  to  be  least  in  the  case  of  that  trait. 
In  the  case  of  General  Ability  and  Intelligence, 
however,  the  correlations  average  .50,  indicating 
a  very  real  tendency  to  agreement  between  group 
judgment  of  letters,  by  strangers,  and  group  esti- 
mates of  personal  traits  by  acquaintances. 

Considering  the  individual  judges  of  the  letters, 
when  the  estimates  of  fellow  students  are  taken  as 
the  standard,  the  average  of  the  individual  corre- 
lations is  .37  in  the  case  of  General  Abilit}^  The 
individual  correlations  range  from  .18  to  .52. 
When  the  estimates  of  teachers  are  taken  as  the 
standard,  the  individual  correlations  of  the  judges 
range  from  .24  to  .57,  averaging  .43.     That  is  to 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  23 

say,  the  group  judgment  of  the  letters  of  appli- 
cations accords  better  with  the  estimates  of 
acquaintances  than  do  the  individual  judgments, 
on  the  average.  *^  Although  one  might  find  a 
judge  who  would  do  better  than  the  group  judg- 
ment, the  group  judgment  would  be  safer  unless 
one  had  some  means  of  knowing  the  good  judges 
beforehand/' 

Improved  Technio 

Such  results  do,  however,  suggest  a  useful 
procedure  in  selecting  and  in  checking  up  the 
individuals  who  are  assigned  the  work  of  passing 
judgment  on  letters  of  application,  when  such 
applications  must  be  considered.  If  the  consen- 
sus of  opinion  be  derived  not  from  the  judgments 
of  random  individuals,  but  from  a  number  of 
members  of  the  firm,  alike  conversant  with  the 
qualities  desired,  with  the  definition  of  trait  terms, 
and  with  the  general  policy  of  the  firm,  the  judi- 
cial capacity  of  each  may  be  determined.  This 
will  be  shown  by  the  individual's  agreement  with 
the  consensus  of  opinion  of  all  the  responsible 
individuals.  Deviation  from  this  standard  will 
indicate  at  least  departure  from  the  general  aim 
or  policy.     Close  agreement  with  the  consensus 


24        JUDGINa  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

will  characterize  the  executive  whose  judgments 
best  represent  the  combined  opinions  of  the  firm. 
In  the  case  we  have  just  considered,  judges  3,  5, 
and  15  are  the  ones  best  qualified  to  represent  the 
group  opinion,  if  we  assume  that  all  four  of  the 
traits  here  considered  are  essential.  On  the 
other  hand  it  would  be  folly  to  assign  the  task  of 
rating  such  applications  to  judges  18  and  39, 
whose  agreements  with  the  consensus  of  opinion 
are  so  low  as  to  suggest  almost  purely  random 
decisions,  unless  it  could  in  some  definite  way  be 
demonstrated  that  the  policy  of  the  firm  or  the 
consensus  of  opinion  were  wrong.  This  could  be 
learned  by  comparing  the  early  ratings  with  the 
subsequent  success  of  such  candidates  as  were  em- 
ployed. Such  investigation  requires  time  and 
patience,  as  well  as  considerable  experimental 
and  statistical  expertness,  but  such  procedure 
represents  the  only  promising  method  for  giving 
value  and  accuracy  to  judgments  based  on  letters 
of  application,  and  for  choosing  emplo>Tnent  ex- 
ecutives whose  opinions,  in  this  connection,  will 
have  substantial  merit. 

A  further  step  with  genuine  utility  consists  in 
taking  care  that  the  application  will  contain  data 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  25 

of  the  highest  possible  relevance.  Shall  the  appli- 
cant be  required  to  state :  (a)  his  mother's  maiden 
name;  {b)  whether  his  father  is  living;  (c)  his 
reason  for  leaving  school;  (d)  what  studies  he 
liked  best;  (e)  what  church  he  belongs  to;  (/) 
whether  he  plays  a  musical  instrument;  {g)  how 
many  brothers  and  sisters  he  has;  (h)  whether  he 
is  a  vegetarian;  (i)  his  pulse  rate?  All  of  these 
are  questions  that  actually  occur  on  application 
forms.  Obviously  such  an  application  or  letter 
should  contain  as  much  relevant  material  as  pos- 
sible and  little  distracting  and  irrelevant  material. 
But  the  preparation  of  instructions  for  such  ap- 
plications presupposes  that  some  study  has  been 
made  of  the  relation  between  biographical  data 
and  fitness  for  the  job  in  question.  Furthermore, 
not  all  relevant  biographical  facts  are  equally 
important  for  many  jobs.  In  one  connection  age 
may  handicap  while  education  qualifies;  in  an- 
other connection  education  may  count  for  little 
but  physiological  maturity  may  count  for  much. 
Judgments  based  on  letters  of  application  may 
therefore  be  given  added  validity  if  the  letters  are 
required  to  give  relevant  data  and  if  there  is  some 
more  or  less  systematic  method  of  evaluating  the 
relative  importance  and  the  total  significance  of 


26        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

the  data  reported  by  the  candidate.  No  precise 
rules  can  be  laid  down  for  such  an  enterprise  in 
general,  since  the  value  of  evei'y  item  will  vary 
with  the  circumstances,  the  job,  the  firm,  and  with 
other  items.  But  for  any  particular  situation 
investigation  will  usually  disclose  valuable  prin- 
ciples or  tendencies,  and  often  exact  quantitative 
measurements  of  the  value  of  special  items  may 
be  secured.  The  following  examples  will  suggest 
ways  in  which  added  value  may  accrue  to  the  tra- 
ditional method  of  selection  based  on  letters  of 
application. 

The  National  Association  of  Life  Underwriters 
recently  secured,  from  548  successful  insurance 
salesmen,  information  on  some  70  questions, 
partly  of  a  biographical  character.  An  analysis  of 
these  returns  has  been  made  by  Dr.  F.  L.  Wells.* 
The  men  are  grouped  according  to  earning  capac- 
ity, into  four  groups  which  we  may  roughly  char- 
acterize as  Excellent,  Good,  Fair  and  Poor.  On 
the  basis  of  annual  earnings  they  represent  $25,- 
000,  $10,000,  $5,000  and  $2,500  groups.  From  the 
numerous  items  given  in  the  analysis  of  "Wells, 
the  following  are  chosen  merely  to  illustrate  the 

4  F.  L.  Wells.  "Analysis  of  a  Successful  Agent,"  Life  Aeaoc. 
News,  XI,  3. 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION 


27 


difference  between  relevant,  ambiguous  and  irrel- 
evant facts. 


Earning  Capacity  and  Biographical  Data 


Excel- 

' 

i 

lent 

Good 

Fair 

Poor 

Number  of  men  in  the  group . . . 

8 

81 

180     1 

279 

Averasre  asre 

46 

45 

44 

41 

Percentage    of    time    given    to 

work   

88 

77 

74 

78 

Number  married  (per  cent) . . . 

90  + 

90  + 

90  + 

90  + 

Per  cent  having  children 

100 

82 

74 

67 

Per  cent  working  as  a  boy 

50 

80 

84 

85 

Per  cent  starting  on  commission 

88 

86 

81 

37 

Per  cent  having  good  health . . . 

100 

97 

94 

95 

Attracted  to  work  by  opportu- 

nities   

50 

60 

62 

60 

Entering  work,  from  necessity. . 

25 

6 

12 

14 

High  school  or  seminary  educa- 

tion   

100 

65 

68 

67 

Attended    college    or    technical 

school 

63 

27 

.Sfi 

7^ 

Per  cent  having  recreations 

100 

87 

82 

74 

Having  mortgage  on  own  house 

13 

30 

30 

39 

Feeling  lack  of  perseverance . . . 

0 

1 

9 

17 

Reporting  lack  of  system 

0 

11 

2 

6 

All  of  these  items  represent  data  that  could  be 
secured  from  a  properly  prepared  application 
blank  or  letter.  But  it  is  clear  that  they  are  not 
of  equal  importance,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
success  in  the  occupation  concerned.  Thus  Time 
Given  to  Work,  Having  Good  Health,  Motive  for 


28        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Entering  Work,  Education,  Felt  Lack  of  System, 
and  Marital  Status,  do  not  vary  with  earning 
power  or  success  in  this  vocation,  especially  if 
the  very  small  group  of  eight  *^ excellent''  men  be 
omitted  because  of  the  relative  unreliability  of 
averages  from  so  small  a  number  of  cases.  Age, 
Working  as  a  Boy,  Mortgage  on  House,  tend  only 
slightly  to  be  related  to  success. 

On  the  other  hand  Having  Children,  Starting 
AYork  on  Commission,  Having  Outside  Recrea- 
tions, Not  Feeling  Lack  of  Perseverance  are  defin- 
itely related  to  success,  throughout  the  table  of 
results.  Now  if,  on  general  grounds,  health,  edu- 
cation, marriage,  freedom  from  mortgages,  and 
system  are  desirable  traits  in  an  applicant,  it 
would  seem  that  these  traits  should  at  least  be 
given  less  weight  than  that  assigned  to  those  traits 
that  are  definitely  related  to  degree  of  success. 
To  assign  precise  weights  to  various  items  in- 
volves somewhat  complicated  technic,  such  as 
that  to  be  described  in  a  later  chapter  on  the 
methods  of  correlation.  But  an  improvement 
over  the  random  method  commonly  used  would  be 
to  assign,  say,  one  point  credit  to  desirable  traits 
not  found  to  be  related  to  success,  and  two  points 
to  traits  or  items  found  to  be  so  related.    By  some 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  29 

such  system  of  point  credits  an  approach  to  objec- 
tive ratings  of  application  blanks  may  be  made 
which  would  quite  certainly  possess  a  validity 
not  characteristic  of  judgments  based  solely  on 
subjective  impression. 

Andrews "  has  reported,  from  the  Bureau  of 
Personnel  Research  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology,  a  case  in  practical  business  in  which 
such  a  system  of  grading  applications  was 
adopted,  after  a  preliminary  study  of  the  relation 
between  various  biographical  facts  and  success  in 
the  case  of  individuals  already  in  the  employ  of 
the  firm.  The  following  quotation  illustrates  the 
use  of  the  method. 

A  man  states  in  his  application  that  he  is  thirty-five 
years  old.  Looking  up  the  range  of  values  for  age  we 
find  that  he  gets  three  points  on  that  item.  We  note 
that  he  is  single  and  we  take  away  a  point,  leaving  two. 
He  has  had  eight  years  schooling  and  we  add  a  point 
for  this,  bringing  his  total  thus  far  back  to  three.  He 
has  been  a  file  clerk,  ledger  clerk,  and  head  clerk,  all  of 
which  come  under  social  occupations;  we  subtract  a 
point  from  the  total.  He  has,  however,  remained  for 
years  with  the  same  company,  which  shows  that  he  is 
a  stable  worker  and  not  a  ' '  floater. '  *  This  adds  a  point 
and  his  total  once  more  stands  at  three.    After  assigning 

0  L.  G.  Andrews.  "A  Grading  System  for  Picking  Men,"  Sales 
Management,  January,  1922. 


30       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

the  proper  scores  to  the  remainder  of  the  items  on  his 
application  blank,  we  finally  secure,  let  us  say,  a  total 
score  of  8.  Reference  to  our  table  shows  that  men 
scoring  8  have  practically  always  made  good,  so  the 
man  is  hired. 

While  such  improvements  of  the  traditional 
method  cannot  be  expected  to  produce  perfect  cor- 
lespondence  between  selection  and  success,  the 
evidence  is  that  the  careful  scrutiny,  system  and 
objective  point  of  view  which  the  method  in- 
volves constitute  a  genuine  advance  in  personnel 
selection.  Thus  Andrews  concludes  that  'Hhe 
items  in  an  application  blank  can  be  graded  so 
that  they  will  pick  the  right  man  60  per  cent  of 
the  time.^' 

Similar  methods  of  analysis  were  used  by 
Thorndike  ^  in  his  study  of  the  biographical  data 
of  applicants  for  the  schools  of  military  aero- 
nautics. Biographical  items  were  compared  with 
the  classification  of  men  as  successes  or  failures 
in  the  Ground  Schools,  the  Flying  Schools,  and 
in  actual  service,  in  the  hope  of  discovering  sig- 
nificant antecedents  which  might  aid  in  the  selec- 
tion of  men  for  training.  In  this  way  the  most 
important  items  were  found  to  be  amount  of  edu- 

e  The  Personnel  Bystem  pi  the  V.  S.  Army,  vol.  i.,  pp.  604-633. 


LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION  31 

Cation,  rate  of  school  progress,  class  standing, 
and  interest  in  and  ability  at  studies  of  the  phys- 
ical sciences,  when  success  in  the  Ground  Schools 
was  taken  as  the  criterion.  Age,  salary  at  last 
position,  social  status  (occupation  of  father) 
showed  no  correlation  with  such  success.  Such 
data  were  by  no  means  used  as  the  sole  criteria  of 
selection,  but,  in  so  far  as  the  items  of  the  appli- 
cation blank  were  used  at  all,  they  could  on  this 
basis  be  assigned  their  relative  importance  and 
roughly  combined  to  give  certain  total  indications. 

In  all  of  these  cases,  and  in  general  in  the  use  of 
letters  of  application,  the  need  is  felt  for  more 
objective  methods  of  securing  information  con- 
cerning the  candidate's  character  and  capacity. 
Thus  an  improved  rating  of  applications  which 
secures  only  60  per  cent  of  successful  selections, 
leaves  much  to  be  desired,  and  should  always  be 
supplemented  by  whatever  additional  aids  are 
available. 

In  the  case  of  the  studies  of  this  traditional 
method  of  diagnosing  character  we  have  few 
objective  facts  with  which  to  compare  our  judg- 
ments. It  might  seem  reasonable  to  suggest  that 
the  consensus  of  opinion  of  all  the  judges  would 
approximate  such  an  objective  standard.     This, 


32        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTEE 

however,  cannot  be  assumed  until  it  is  demon- 
strated. It  is  entirely  possible  that  some  judge 
whose  arrangements  differ  widely  from  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  is  more  nearly  correct  than  is 
that  consensus.  Even  in  democratic  countries  the 
counting  of  votes  does  not  necessarily  determine 
truth. 

In  the  following  chapter  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  consider  judgments  of  character  in  circum- 
stances where  more  reliable  objective  facts  are 
at  hand  for  use  as  a  criterion  of  correctness.  The 
letter  of  application  often  contains  a  photograph 
of  the  applicant.  In  many  cases  the  candidates 
are  requested  to  submit  such  photographs,  and 
cases  are  even  known  in  which  it  is  announced 
beforehand  that  applications  not  accompanied  by 
photographs  will  under  no  circumstances  be  con- 
sidered. Presumably  these  photographs  are  sup- 
posed to  reveal  evidences  of  character  not  to  be 
found  in  the  letters,  and  since  the  photograph  is 
usually  the  next  thing  to  be  considered,  we  may 
next  turn  to  the  judgment  of  photographs,  as  our 
second  traditional  method  of  diagnosing  char- 
acter. 


CHAPTER  III 
HUMAN  CHARACTER  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS 

That  character  reveals  itself  in  the  features, 
and  especially  in  the  facial  expression,  is  a  belief 
of  long  standing  and  of  quite  general  tenure. 
Even  those  who  have  long  relinquished  their  faith 
in  phrenology  and  physiognomy,  with  their  at- 
tempts to  tabulate  the  meaning  of  structural  char- 
acteristics, believe  that  customary  attitudes  and 
feelings  may  be  read  from  the  total  impression 
given  by  the  face.  A  face  or  photograph,  it  is 
said,  ** looks  intelligent,*'  ** beams  with  pride, '* 
** speaks  defiance.'*  Even  the  faces  of  the  lower 
animals  convey  these  meanings  to  us.  Sometimes 
particular  details  are  singled  out  as  significant, 
but  this  is  usually  a  rationalization,  made  after 
the  general  impression  has  already  been  given. 
Again  the  face  is  said  to  remind  one  of  someone 
else  who  had  given  characteristics,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  trait  is  attributed  to  the  stranger.  But, 
aside  from  the  arbitrary  dogmas  of  particular 
professional  *^characterologists,"  there  is  no  gen- 

33 


34        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

eral  agreement  on  these  details,  either  as  between 
individuals  or  as  between  different  photographs  or 
faces. 

Agreement  of  Judges 

In  spite  of  the  disagreement  on  significant  de- 
tails, there  is  nevertheless  considerable  agree- 
ment between  the  verdicts  which  different  people 
pass  on  the  character  denoted  by  photographs.  A 
group  of  ten  adults  were  asked  individually  to  ar- 
range a  series  of  twenty  photographs  in  an  order 
of  merit  on  the  basis  of  several  different  traits 
of  character.'  ^'If  there  were  no  agreement  among 
the  judges,  their  arrangements  would  follow  the 
laws  of  chance,  and  each  photograph  might  be 
expected  to  appear  equally  often  in  any  of  the 
positions  from  one  to  twenty  in  the  series.  All 
the  photographs  would  have  about  the  same  aver- 
age position,  which  would  be  about  rank  number 
ten,  and  the  average  deviations  of  the  verdicts  of 
the  various  judges  would  be  about  ^ve  positions 
for  each  of  the  photographs,  regardless  of  the 
trait  in  question.  The  following  table  shows  the 
average  deviations  of  the  verdicts  of  the  ten 
judges  (averaging  all  the  pictures  together)  for 
the  seven  different  traits. 


CHARACTER  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS   35 


Average  Deviations  in  Judging  Photographs 


Trait  Judged 

Intelligence 

Perseverance 

Kindliness 

Conceit    

Courage  

Humor 

Deceitfulness    


Average 

Chance 

Deviation 

Deviation 

2.86  places 

About  5  places 

3.32     " 

it      i(      (( 

3.55     " 

((      i(      i( 

3.57     " 

a         (I         a 

3.69     " 

a         (I         u 

3.90      " 

it             U             it 

4.14     " 

u         a         (c 

This  means  that  in  the  long  run  one  judge  will 
place  a  photograph  in  a  group  of  twenty,  when 
arranged  for  a  given  trait,  not  over  three  or  four 
steps  away  from  the  place  to  which  others  would 
assign  it,  instead  of  the  five  steps  which  chance 
arrangement  would  yield.  This  tendency  toward 
more  than  chance  agreement  also  varies  with  the 
trait.  Jt  is  highest  of  all  for  intelligence  and 
perseverance,  lowest  of  all  for  humor  and  deceit- 
fulness,  and  intermediate  for  the  other  traits  here 
considered.  In  the  case  of  humor  and  deceitful- 
ness, indeed,  the  disagreement  is  almost  as  great 
as  chance  would  produce,  although  in  the  case  of 
intelligence  the  deviation  is  only  a  little  more 
that  half  as  great  as  would  result  from  chance. 
These  results  suggest,  then,  that  quite  aside  from 
the  correctness  of  their  opinions,  people  agree 


36        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

fairly  well  on  thej[acial  expression  that  denotes 
intelligence,  but  that  each  has  his  ownjotion  of 
the  appearance  of  a  deceitful  face. 

The  practical  question  is  of  course  not  how 
closely  different  judges  agree  in  their  estimates 
of  photographs,  but  whether  these  verdicts  bear 
any  relation  whatever  to  the  facts.  Fortunately 
this  investigation  and  several  others  similar  to 
it,  give  us  interesting  information  on  this  point. 
Is  there  **an  art  to  read  the  mind's  construction'* 
in  the  photograph?  The  individuals  whose  pho- 
tographs were  used  were  ranked  in  order  of  merit 
for  various  traits  by  twenty-five  people  who  were 
acquainted  with  all  the  individuals.  These  rank- 
ings were  not  based  on  photographs  nor  on  fea- 
tures, but  on  actual  experience  with  the  people  in 
question  through  a  close  acquaintance  for  a 
period  in  no  case  less  than  two  years.  Since 
human  traits  exist  only  in  so  far  as  they  become 
manifest,  we  may  fairly  take  the  combined  judg- 
ment of  these  twenty-five  acquaintances  to  repre- 
sent as  correct  a  statement  of  the  real  charac- 
ters as  can  conveniently  be  secured.  To  have 
been  known  by  twenty-five  associates  for  at  least 
two  years  is,  in  a  sense,  equivalent  to  fifty  years 
of  acquaintance  with  one  individual,  and  traits 


CHARACTER  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS   37 

that  do  not  manifest  themselves  correctly  in  fifty 
experience-years  are  not  likely  ever  to  do  so. 

tJNRELIABrLITY  OF  InDH^IDUAL  JUDGMENT 

We  can  now  compare  the  judgments  of  photo- 
graphs, made  by  total  strangers  to  the  individuals 
represented,  with  the  combined  judgments  of 
these  twenty-five  acquaintances.  The  comparison 
should  tell  us  something  fairly  definite  concerning 
the  validity  of  judgments  based  on  photographs 
by  the  method  of  general  impression.  If  we  rep- 
resent a  mere  chance  agreement,  such  as  would  be 
produced  by  shufflng  the  photographs  repeatedly 
and  averaging  the  rankings  given  after  each  shuf- 
fle, by  zero  (.00),  we  can  by  the  appropriate  sta- 
tistical procedure,  referred  to  in.  the  preceding 
chapter,  determine  the  degree  of  resemblance  due 
to  the  correctness  of  the  judges  in  their  estimates. 
A  resemblance  of  1.00  would  be  perfect  agreement 
between  the  ranking  of  the  photographs  and  the 
combined  verdict  of  the  acquaintances.  We  might 
in  this  way  secure  coefficients  of  agreement  lying 
anywhere  along  the  scale  from  zero  to  perfection, 
that  is  from  .00  to  1.00.  We  might  even  find  neg- 
Mive  relations,  giving  us  such  coefficients  as  — .24, 


38        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

— .48,  etc.,  or  even —  1.00  in  case  one  series  should 
be  absolutely  the  reverse  of  the  other. 

The  following  table  shows  what  coefficients  of 
agreement  resulted  from  the  comparison  of  the 
verdicts  of  the  ten  judges  who  arranged  the  pho- 
tographs, with  what  we  have  described  as  the  true 
or  actual  ranking  of  the  people  represented.  The 
coefficients  are  given  for  all  the  judges  in  the  case 
of  three  representative  traits. 

Individual  Correctness  of  Judges  in  Estimating 
Coefficients  of  Correlation 


Judge 

Intelligence 

Neatness 

Sociability 

I 

.51 

.11 

.39 

II 

.11 

.10 

.08 

Ill 

.15 

.29 

.05 

IV 

—.27 

.06 

.49 

V 

.08 

.24 

.08 

VI 

.43 

.41 

.28 

VII 

.04 

.11 

.02 

VIII 

.39 

—.09 

.32 

IX 

.22 

—.08 

.00 

X 

.30 

.02 

.55 

Medians  . . 

.19 

.11 

.18 

The  results  are  very  instructive.  The  indi- 
viduals judging  the  photographs  tend  slightly 
toward  correctness  rather  than  toward  error,  but 
the  individual  coefficients  of  agreement  are  so  low 


CHARACTER  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS   39 

and  so  irregular  as  to  be  entirely  useless.  Ver- 
dicts of  one  judge,  based  on  the  photographs,  are 
80  inaccurate  that  on  the  average  they  give  only  a 
little  more  than  chance  agreement  with  the  facts, 
and  if  one  is  going  to  rely  on  the  verdict  of  a 
single  judge,  one  might  almost  as  well  request  him 
to  shuffle  the  photographs  and  report  which  one 
comes  out  on  top.  Moreover,  when  one  judge 
happens  to  yield  a  fairly  high  coefficient  in  judg- 
ing one  of  the  traits,  he  is  entirely  likely  to  fall 
very  low  in  his  judgment  of  other  traits.  And,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  in  three  cases  in  the  table  the 
individual  judgments  of  the  photographs  gave 
negative  coefficients  with  the  true  orders.  Ob- 
viously, to  accept  the  verdict  of  one  judge  would 
be  unfair  to  the  individual  whose  fate  might  be 
in  question,  as  well  as  unfair  to  the  judge  com- 
pelled to  assume  this  responsibility. 

The  Consensus  of  Opinion 

But  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  pho- 
tographs tell  us  nothing  about  human  character. 
As  the  table  shows,  the  individual  judges  tend 
toward  correctness  rather  than  toward  error. 
We  might  suppose  that  by  combining  the  verdicts 


40       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 


of  many  judges,  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  the  ac- 
quaintances, we  might  secure  more  accurate  re- 
sults, since  the  errors  of  one  judge  might  tend  to 
neutralize  those  of  another,  thus  precipitating 
only  their  mutual  correctness  as  the  final  result 
of  the  combination.  That  such  a  hope  is  in  part 
justified  is  shown  by  the  following  table  of  results, 
which  were  secured  by  averaging  the  opinions  of 
twenty-five  women,  in  the  one  case,  and  twenty-five 
men  in  the  other,  when  both  were  judging  the 
character  suggested  by  twenty-five  photographs 
of  women.  Here  as  before  we  have  compared  the 
judgment  of  the  photographs  with  the  combined 
estimates  of  twenty-five  acquaintances. 

Judgments   op   Photographs   Compared   with   Judgments 
Made  by  Twenty-five  Actual  Acquaintances 


Trait 

Photos 

Judged 

by  25  Men 

Photos 

Judged 

by  25  Women 

Average  of 
Men  and 
Women 

Neatness    

Conceit 

Sociability 

Humor 

Likeability    

Intelligence 

Refinement    

Beauty 

Snobbishness    

Vulgarity    

Medians 

.03 
.10 
.29 
.21 
.30 
.42 
.50     , 

.m 

.58 
.61 

.36 

.07 

.27 

.29 

.45 

.45 

.61 

.52' 

.49 

.53 

.69 

.47 

.05 
.19 
.29 
.33 
.38 
.51 
.51 
.55 
.56 
.65 

.45 

CHARACTEE  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS   41 

Considering  the  average  results  it  appears  that 
by  combining  the  verdicts  of  several  judges  the 
accuracy  of  the  judgments  based  on  photographs 
is  increased.  The  individual  judges  intelligence 
with  a  correctness  of  only  .19  on  the  average ;  the 
group  judges  intelligence  with  an  average  cor- 
rectness of  .51.  In  the  case  of  sociability  also  the 
group  correctness  is  greater.  The  individual, 
however,  judged  neatness,  on  the  average,  wdth  a 
correctness  of  only  .11,  whereas  the  group  judges 
it  with  no  greater  correctness.  In  the  case  of  the 
other  traits  the  correctness  of  the  group  judgment 
varies  with  the  trait  considered.  Neatness,  con- 
ceit, sociability,  humor  and  likeability  give  very 
low  coefficients  even  when  the  group  judgments  are 
used.  But  intelligence,  refinement,  beauty,  snob- 
bishness and  vulgarity  yield  coefficients  suffi- 
ciently high  to  be  interesting  and  suggestive,  al- 
though they  are  far  from  representing  perfect 
accuracy. 

In  general  then  the  investigations  here  consid- 
ered suggest  that  photographs  may  be  used  to 
convey  useful  information  concerning  the  charac- 
ter of  the  individuals  they  represent,  if  the 
proper  technic  is  employed.  The  technic  consists, 
first,  in  securing  the  combined  estimates  of  many 


42        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

general  impressions,  and  second,  in  recognizing 
that  such  combined  impressions  give  significant 
coefficients  of  correctness  only  in  the  case  of  cer- 
tain traits.  Many  different  investigations  agree 
in  finding  that  the  traditional  methods  of  diag- 
nosing human  aptitude  and  character  give,  in 
general,  coefficients  of  correctness  of  not  over  .25. 
It  is  then  useful  to  know  that,  at  least  in  the  case 
of  certain  traits,  the  method  of  the  combined  im- 
pression from  photographs  gives  coefficients  of 
correctness  that  are  at  least  twice  as  great  (.51  to 
.65  in  the  present  instances)  as  those  resulting 
from  the  traditional  methods  in  their  usual  form. 

Additional  Evidence 

Since  this  investigation  was  made  and  first  re- 
ported, several  other  studies  similar  to  it  have 
been  reported  by  other  workers  in  this  field. 
Pintner  (Intelligence  as  Estimated  from  Photo- 
graphs, Psychological  Review ,  July,  1918)  used 
rather  dissimilar  photographs  of  children  whose 
intelligence  he  had  measured  by  one  of  the  stand- 
ard intelligence  scales,  and  had  the  photographs 
ranked  for  intelligence  by  various  judges.  Just 
as  in  our  own  case,  the  individual  judgments  tended 


CHARACTER  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS   43 

toward  correctness,  but  the  coejQScients  of  corre- 
lation were  small.  They  averaged  only  about  .10 
when  individual  judgments  were  considered,  ris- 
ing to  .16  when  the  judgments  of  the  total  group 
of  observers  were  combined  into  a  group  impres- 
sion. In  another  case  ^  the  employees  of  a  com- 
pany were  given  standard  intelligence  tests,  and 
their  photographs  were  judged  for  intelligence  by 
twelve  people,  who  were  unacquainted  with  the 
individuals  represented.  A  special  method  was 
used  which  does  not  give  figures  precisely  com- 
parable with  those  reported  above,  but  the  indica- 
tions are  very  much  the  same  as  those  from  other 
investigations.  By  the  method  used,  the  combined 
judgments  give  a  correlation  of  .27  with  the  in- 
telligence ratings  as  secured  through  the  tests. 

In  the  case  of  this  traditional  method,  then,  our 
results,  though  critical,  are  not  entirely  dispar- 
aging. The  scientific  study  of  the  traditional 
methods  is  not  undertaken  with  the  hope  of  bring- 
ing them  into  disrepute.  The  intention  is  instead 
that  of  investigating,  by  controlled  experiment, 
the  degree  of  value  attaching  to  these  methods  and 
the  conditions  under  which  greater  value  can  be 

7  ArderBon.  "Estimating  Intelligence  by  Means  of  Printed 
Photographs/'  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  June,  1921. 


44        JUDGINa  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

secured.  Nor  should  our  study  be  influenced  by 
the  practicability  or  impracticability  of  securing 
in  actual  affairs  these  more  favorable  conditions. 
We  must  first  know  what  the  favorable  conditions 
are  and  in  what  respects  the  method  in  question 
yields  reliable  information.  The  continued  use 
of  the  method  then  becomes  a  question  of  practi- 
cal expediency. 


CHAPTER  IV 
JUDGING  ONE'S  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  letter  of  application  has  certain  character- 
istics of  its  own,  by  virtue  of  its  being  a  letter — 
its  form  and  appearance,  its  vocabulary  and  gen- 
eral tone,  its  stationery,  its  choice  of  topics  and 
their  relative  emphasis.  The  letter  may  also  be 
accompanied  by  a  photograph  of  the  writer.  Both 
of  these  features,  the  letter  as  a  whole  and  the 
photograph,  we  have  considered  iii  detail.  Special 
attention,  however,  must  be  given  to  a  kind  of  ma- 
terial which  may  appear  in  some  letters  but  not 
in  others,  and  concerning  which  special  provision 
is  made  in  many  formal  application  blanks.  Dis- 
tinguished from  the  narrative  of  fact  and  biogra- 
phy, we  must  recognize  those  estimates  which  the 
applicant  gives  of  his  own  mental  or  moral  traits, 
his  aptitudes,  virtues  and  interests — in  general, 
his  ^self-estimates. 

In  an  application  blank  issued  by  a  Public  Em- 
ployment Bureau,  which  advertises  **  Facilities 
for  supplying  high-grade  skilled  and  unskilled 

45 


46        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

male  and  female  help  promptly,"  the  applicant 
is  advised,  *^Your  answers  to  all  questions  will 
serve  as  a  guide  for  the  Placement  Clerk." 
Three  pages  of  questions  are  then  presented, 
which  the  applicant  is  to  answer,  concerning  him- 
self. Many  of  these  questions  relate  to  matters 
of  fact  and  biography,  education,  previous  occu- 
pation, ancestry,  health,  etc.  Such  questions  are 
not  of  immediate  concern  to  us,  although  the 
question  of  their  relevance  or  importance  may 
fairly  be  investigated.  But  about  half  of  the 
questions  are  of  an  altogether  different  type.  In 
them  the  applicant  is  asked  to  give  an  estimate  of 
his  own  characteristics,  sometimes  in  vague  and 
general  terms,  sometimes  in  terms  of  greater 
precision.  The  following  questions,  chosen  from 
the  many  included  in  the  blank,  will  represent  the 
type: 

Does  your  miad  concentrate  or  skip  around? 

Have  you  self-confidence? 

Have  you  patience? 

Do  you  act  impulsively  ? 

Are  you  persevering? 

Do  you  consider  yourself  absolutely  honest? 

Can  you  plan  well,  and  carry  out  your  plans? 

Are  you  inclined  to  be  lazy? 

Are  you  sensitive? 


JUDGING  OWN  CHAEACTERISTICS     47 

Can  you  remember  things  well  and  for  a  considerable 
period  ? 

Similarly,  on  a  College  Observation  Chart,  the 
student  is  asked  to  grade  himself  at  various  times 
during  his  course,  by  assigning  himself  scores  of 
A,  B,  C,  or  D  in  each  of  various  traits  or  abilities 
listed  on  the  chart.  The  traits,  many  in  num- 
ber, are  such  as  Imagination,  Humor,  Friendli- 
ness, Self-control,  Poise,  Spirituality,  etc.  In 
such  a  case  as  this  the  estimation  of  one's  own 
traits  may  have  a  distinct  value,  quite  aside  from 
the  accuracy  or  inaccuracy  of  the  self-estimates. 
The  student,  in  attempting  to  grade  his  inclina- 
tions and  tendencies,  may  find  his  own  character- 
istics clarified  and  noticed  in  the  process.  He 
may  readily  learn  how  imperfect  is  his  knowledge 
of  himself  and  be  led  to  useful  habits  of  self  ob- 
servation and  criticism.  In  the  former  case,  how- 
ever, it  is  asserted  that  the  self-estimates  of  the 
applicant  are  to  be  used  in  determining  his 
destiny.  Here  the  question  of  their  accuracy 
or  inaccuracy  is  not  irrelevant.  Our  experiments 
on  this  point  can  be  readily  presented  under 
three  headings,  each  indicated  by  a  specific 
question. 


48        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

AccuHACY  OF  Self-estimates 

How  jjlose  to  the  truth  does  one  come  in  at- 
tempting  tg. grade  his  or  hpT  nimi^hmr^^ 
Twenty-five  persons  agreed  to  rate  themselves  in 
nine  different  traits,  by  indicating  at  what  point 
they  stood  in  the  group  of  twenty-five,  when  these 
were  arranged  in  an  order  of  merit  for  each  trait. 
Thus  a  self-estimate  of  1  in  Neatness  meant  that 
the  individual  believed  herself  to  be  the  neatest 
person  in  the  group  of  twenty-five,  with  all  of 
whom  she  was  personally  acquainted.  A  score 
of  13  would  mean  that  in  such  a  series  this  person 
believed  herself  to  belong  in  the  middle  position, 
etc. 

All  tlie  members  of  this  experimental  group 
constructed  such  a  serial  arrangement  of  the 
group  for  each  trait,  each  placing  herself  at  that 
point  in  the  series  at  which  she  judged  herself  to 
belong.  The  record  was  made  in  an  apparently 
anonymous  way,  but  unknown  to  the  members  of 
the  group,  accurate  record  had  been  kept  of  their 
judgments,  by  a  secret  method.  Each  person  thus 
not  only  judged  herself,  but  was  in  turn  judged 
by  twenty-four  of  her  acquaintances.  If  we  take 
the    consensus    of   opinion    (combined    arrange- 


JUDGING  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS     49 


ments)  of  the  acquaintances  as  fairly  represent- 
ing the  impression  made  by  the  individual  on  the 
world,  this  gives  us  a  measure  of  her  manifest 
character  in  the  traits  considered.  We  can  there- 
fore determine  the  accuracy  of  the  self-estimates 
by  comparing  them  with  the  consensus  of  ac- 
quaintances. The  following  table  shows  how 
many  steps  the  acquaintances  varied  from  each 
other,  ill  judging  an  individual's  traits,  and  also 
the  average  error  made  by  the  individuals  in  esti- 
mating their  own  position  in  the  series. 

Errors  of  Self-Estimates  Compared  with  Estimates  of 

Associates 


Trait 

Average    Devia- 
tions   of    Judg- 
ments  of   24  Ac- 
quaintances 

Average  Displace- 
ments  of    Self- 
Estimates   from 
Position  Assigned 
by  Acquaintances 

Neatness    

4.5  steps 

3.7  " 
4.5      " 
4.1      " 

3.8  '' 
3.5      '' 

4.8  '' 

5.9  '^ 
4.7     " 

5.8  steps 
6.0     " 

Intelligence 

Humor 

Conceit 

Beauty 

7.3      '' 
5.7      " 
6.0      " 

Vulgarity 

Snobbishness 

Refinement 

Sociability 

6.1      " 

5.1  " 

7.2  " 
5.4      •• 

Averages 

4.4  steps 

6.1  steps 

If  we  bear  in  mind  that  purely  chance  arrange- 
ments of  such  a  series,  from  time  to  time,  would 


50       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

give  each  individual  the  same  average  position  in 
the  series,  and  that  the  average  deviation  of  all 
the  separate  positions  from  this  average  would  be 
on  the  average  a  little  over  six  steps,  it  is  at  once 
clear  that  these  individual  self-estimates  are 
nearly  as  inaccurate  as  they  possibly  could  be 
under  the  circumstances.  The  average  displace- 
ments of  the  self-estimates  from  the  positions 
assigned  by  acquaintances  is  6.1  steps,  approxi- 
mately what  it  would  have  been  had  the  names 
been  shuffled  instead  of  seriously  and  honestly 
arranged.  And  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  in- 
dividual estimates  in  this  investigation  were  ren- 
dered quite  as  seriously  and  as  honestly  as  they 
would  have  been  on  a  formal  application  blank. 
The  inference  seems  to  be  that  the  Employment 
Bureau  might  just  as  well  have  tossed  up  a  coin, 
heads  meaning  ^^concentrate,''  tails  meaning 
**skip  around,''  for  example,  as  to  ask  the  appli- 
cant to  estimate  his  or  her  degree  of  possession 
of  the  traits  in.  question.  This  of  course  is  on 
the  assumption  that  the  questions  are  asked  of  the 
applicant  as  a  method  of  eliciting  information, 
not  merely  to  discover  what  the  individual  will  do 
when  confronted  by  such  futile  questions. 


JUDGING  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS     51 

Constant  Ekrors  in  Self-estimation 

^,rf>  sjplf-p.stimates  likely  to  err  in  one  direc- 
tion  rather  than  another?  Here  we  inquire  not 
merely  concerning  the  accuracy  of  self -estimates, 
but  concerning  any  constant  tendency  or  ten- 
dencies toward  bias  that  may  be  present.  In 
judging  ourselves  do  we  overestimate  or  under- 
estimate? It  may  of  course  be  suggested  at  once 
that  our  general  knowledge  of  human  nature  tells 
us  that  individuals  will  overestimate^  their  good 
points  and  underestimate  their  bad  ones.  But 
** general  knowledge  of  human  nature''  is  always 
to  be  mistrusted  until  it  is  verified  under  con- 
trolled conditions.  It  may,  for  example,  be  true 
that  such  a  general  tendency  is  present,  but  that  it 
is  more  conspicuous  in  some  traits  than  in  others. 
And  in  some  traits  there  may  be  no  constant  error 
at  all.  The  experiment  we  have  just  described 
gives  us  material  for  investigating  these  ten- 
dencies, if  we  merely  record  whether  the  self- 
estimates  place  the  individual  higher  or  lower 
in  the  scale  than  the  position  assigned  her 
by  acquaintances.  Representing  a  displacement 
toward  the  upper  part  of  the  scale  and  toward 
the  lower  part  of  it  by  (+)  and  (— ),  respectively, 


52        JUDGING  HTOIAN  CHARACTEE 

and  averaging  algebraically  the  tendencies  for  all 
the  individuals,  the  data  are  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  along  mth  certain  other  information. 

Showing  Constant  Tendencies  or  Bias  in  Self-estimation 
Data  Secured  from  Study  of  Estimates  of  Fifty  People 


Trait 


Refinement  . 

Humor    

Intelligence 
Sociability   . 

Neatness 

Beauty    . 

Conceit   

Snobbishness 
Vulgarity   . . 


Constant 
Error 


+  6.3 

+  5.2 
+  3.0 
+  2.2 
+  1.8 
+  0.2 
—1.7 
—2.0 
—4.2 


Number 

Over- 
estimating 
Themselves 


80  per  cent 

78    "  " 

68  "  " 

68  "  " 

50  "  " 

50  "  " 

48  "  " 

36  "  " 

34  "  " 


Number 
Under- 
estimating 
Themselves 


20  per  cent 

22  "  " 

32  "  " 

32  "  " 

50  "  " 

50  "  " 

52  "  " 

64  "  " 

66  "  " 


In  general  our  expectations  from  ^'knowledge 
of  human  nature '  *  are  realized.  Traits  which  we 
should  on  the  whole  characterize  as  *' admirable ' ' 
traits  are  overestimated ;  traits  ordinarily  classed 
as  ** reprehensible,'^  on  the  other  hand,  are  under- 
estimated. And  this  occurs  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  conditions  of  such  an  experiment  perhaps 
incline  a  participant  to  resist  the  natural  inclina- 
tions to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  so  far  as  one 
might  through  modesty  place  himself  at  a  lower 


JUDGING  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS    53 

point  than  that  at  which  he  confidently  believed 
himself  to  belong. 

But  this  is  not  all  of  the  story.  Some  traits, 
such  as  Neatness,  Beauty,  and  Conceit,  may 
readily  be  classified  as  '^admirable"  or  **repre- 
sensible,"  yet  these  traits  show  no  considerable 
constant  error  of  self-estimation  in  either  direc- 
tion. And  the  constant  errors  for  some  of  the 
admirable  and  for  some  of  the  reprehensible  traits 
are  fully  twice  as  great  as  those  for  other  traits 
in  the  same  general  group.  The  very  least  that 
we  can  say,  on  the  basis  of  the  results,  is  that  in 
discounting  an  individual's  opinion  of  himself  or 
herself,  no  ** blanket  allowance''  can  be  made  for 
all  traits  indiscriminately.  The  errors  of  self 
prejudice  are  greater  in  some  traits  than  in  others. 
It  is  possible  that  the  degree  of  constant  error 
measures  the  degree  of  desirability  or  undesira- 
bility  attributed  by  the  individual  to  the  trait  in 
question.  The  order  in  which  the  traits  occur  in 
our  table  would  on  this  basis  indicate  their  order 
of  desirability  on  the  part  of  our  subjects,  and  the 
size  of  the  error  would  reflect  the  degree  of 
desirability  or  undesirability.  Not  having  in- 
cluded those  traits,  we  cannot  infer  that  ^^Cleanli- 
ness is  next  to  Godliness,"  but  it  may  be  safe  to 


54       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

judge  that  Humor  is  next  to  Refinement,  in  the 
evaluations  of  our  judges.  The  fact  that  Sociabil- 
ity and  Snobbishness,  which  are  in  a  sense  opposite 
traits,  show  opposite  constant  errors  of  almost 
equal  amount  lends  a  certain  probability  to  this 
conjecture. 

Evidence  confirming  these  suggestions  has 
recently  been  reported  by  Knight  and  Franzen.^ 
These  investigators  compared  estimates  of  the 
importance  of  traits  for  the  judges  themselves, 
estimates  of  their  importance  for  the  typical 
member  of  the  group,  and  estimates  for  the  ideal 
member  of  the  group.  There  was  a  definite 
tendency  * '  to  place  one 's  self  nearer  the  ideal  than 
the  typical."  *^ There  is  a  higher  association 
between  what  they  believe  they  are  and  what  they 
would  like  to  be,  than  between  what  they  believe 
they  are  and  what  their  fellow  students  believe 
they  are.''  In  a  related  experiment  students  and 
professors  showed  *^a  clear  tendency  to  speak 
well  of  themselves  in  those  virtues  considered  of 
greater  importance  by  them,  and  to  rate  them- 
selves less  highly  in  traits  considered  less  vital.*' 
**We  think  that  this  tendency  to  over-rate  one's 


1  F.  B.  Knight  and  R.  H.  Franzen.   "Pitfalls  in  Rating  Schemes, 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1922. 


JUDGING  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS     55 

self  and  the  extent  to  which  any  one  individual 
does  it,  has  possible  diagnostic  value  quite  apart 
from  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  ratings  them- 
Belves.'' 

Qualification  of  Judges 

Does  the  possession  of  a  trait  accompany  ahillty 
to  judge  that  trait  correctly^  either  in  self- 
estimation  or  in  the  judgment  of  others?  Is  the 
best  inspector  or  superintendent  of  teachers  one 
who  herself  excels  in  the  art  of  instruction?  Is 
the  best  literary  critic  one  who  is  himself  an  artist 
in  composition?  Is  exceptional  journalistic  apti- 
tude a  prerequisite  of  distinguished  editorial 
work?  Put  in  these  forms  the  question  assumes 
more  than  a  theoretical  interest,  and  it  is  a  ques- 
tion on  which  practical  policies  do  not  seem 
entirely  agreed.  While  we  cannot  pretend  to  solve 
the  whole  problem,  we  can  at  least  show  what  was 
the  case  in  our  own  inquiry.  For  we  have  mea- 
sured the  ability  of  each  individual  to  judge 
himself  and  others,  and  we  have  also  measured 
the  standing  of  each  judge  in  the  traits  considered. 
What  relation  exists  between  these  various 
measures? 

The  table   on  the   following   page  gives  the 


56        JUDGING  HU]\1AN  CHARACTER 

results.  The  figures  give  the  correlations  (coeffi- 
cients of  agreement)  between  possession  of  a  trait, 
or  standing  in  it,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  ability  to  judge  that  trait  correctly  either 
in  self-estimation  or  in  judging  others  for  their 
possession  of  it. 

Correlations  between  Possession  of  Traits  and 
Judicial  Capacity 


Relation  Between 

Possession 

of    a 

Relation  Between 

Trait    and 

Accu- 

Possession    of    a 

Trait 

racy  of  Self -Esti- 

Trait and  Ability 

mation   in 

That 

to 

Judge    It    in 

Trait 

Others 

Humor 

.87 
.83 
.59 

.59 

Refinenient 

.38 

Intelligence 

.49     ' 

Sociability 

.47 

.48 

Neatness 

.45 

.22 

Beautv 

.15 

.23 

Conceit 

—  .22 

—  .27 

—  .37 

.19 

Snobbishness 

.33 

Vulgarity 

—  .24 

In  general  the  more  ** admirable^'  the  trait,  the 
closer  is  the  relation  between  possession  of  it  and 
ability  to  judge  it.  The  three  traits  we  have 
classified  as  **  reprehensible '  *  give  either  very 
low  positive  correlations  or,  in  four  cases  out  of 
the  six,  negative  coefficients.     The  latter  cases 


JUDGING  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS     57 

suggest  that  lack  of  the  trait  in  question  is  more 
likely  to  characterize  those  who  are  able  to  judge 
it,  and  this  relation  is  especially  clear  in  the  case 
of  judgments  of  the  self.  If  then  we  define  a  trait 
as  a  desirable  characteristic  or  aptitude,  the  infer- 
ence is  that  in  the  long  run  the  ability  to  judge 
the  trait  tends  to  be  an  accompaniment  of  the 
possession  of  it,  and  that  the  degree  of  the  ability 
to  judge  varies  directly  with  the  degree  of  the 
possession  of  the  trait. 

Interesting  confirmation  of  these  general  find- 
ings is  reported  by  Allport  and  Allport  from  the 
Harvard  Laboratory.  Different  people  were 
asked  to  estimate  their  own  intelligence  by  the 
rating  scale  method.  They  were  later  given  intel- 
ligence tests,  and  their  self  rankings  compared 
with  their  score  in  these  tests.  There  was  a 
definite  tendency  for  those  high  in  intelligence  to 
underestimate  their  own  ability,  and  for  those 
low  in  this  trait  to  overestimate  themselves.  The 
errors  of  the  former  group  were  also  less  than 
those  of  the  latter,  in  magnitude.  The  correlation 
found  between  self-estimates  of  ability  and  scores 
in  the  Otis  Group  intelligence  tests  was  — .67.  Of 
the  sixteen  individuals  in  the  group,  only  one  of 
those  who  scored  above  average  in  the  intelligence 


58        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

measures  overestimated  his  own  ability,  and  but 
one  of  those  who  fell  into  the  lower  half  of  the 
group,  as  measured  by  the  tests,  failed  to  over- 
estimate himself.  The  average  error  of  the  less 
intelligent  half  was  more  than  twice  as  great  as 
that  of  the  more  intelligent  half. 

These  natural  tendencies  in  self-estimation  may 
be  summarized  briefly  in  the  following  way.  The 
individual  judges  himself  less  accurately  than 
others  judge  him,  and  on  the  whole  self-estimates 
have  only  chance  accuracy.  The  individual's 
judgment  is  moreover  a  biased  one.  He  tends  to 
overestimate  or  to  underestimate  himself  accord- 
ing to  the  presumed  desirableness  or  undesirable- 
ness  of  the  trait.  But  those  individuals  who 
actually  possess  a  given  desirable  trait  in  high 
degree  are  more  accurate  in  their  self-estimates 
for  that  trait  than  are  those  who  possess  the  trait 
in  lower  degree. 


Improved  Technic 

What  suggestions  by  way  of  improved  technic 
does  the  investigation  of  self -estimates  afford? 
If  we  now  refer  back  to  a  preceding  page  on  which 
are  given  sample  questions  from  the  application 


JUDGING  OWN  CHARACTERISTICS     59 

blank  of  the  emplojanent  agency,  it  is  clear  that 
the  traits  considered  in  these  questions  are  not 
all  equally  admirable,  or  reprehensible,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Our  results  suggest  that  the  correct- 
ness of  the  self-estimates  of  the  applicant  will 
vary  with  his  conception  of  the  desirability  of  the 
trait.  An  entirely  practicable  suggestion  is  that 
before  the  applicant  testifies  to  the  degree  of  his 
possession  of  the  traits,  he  be  asked  to  rate  the 
traits  considered,  grading  them  according  to  their 
value  or  importance  for  the  work  in  hand,  or  for 
the  position  for  which  he  applies,  or  for  life  in 
general.  Such  a  step  in  technic  is  easy  of  execu- 
tion, and  in  addition  to  affording  useful  insight 
into  the  candidate's  expressed  conception  of  the 
value  of  qualities  called  for,  it  affords  at  least  a 
suggestive  criterion  on  the  basis  of  which  to 
check  up  his  estimates  of  his  own  character.  But 
perhaps  the  most  important  result  of  this  inquiry 
is  the  definite  evidence  that  self-estimates  are 
misleading  and  that  this  traditional  method  of 
judging  character  lacks  the  accuracy  that  its  pres- 
tige suggests. 


CHAPTER  y 
THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW 

We  may  assume  that  various  stages  in  the  con- 
ventional procedure  of  ^  *  sizing  up ' '  the  applicant 's 
character  have  now  been  completed.  After  the 
traditional  manner  the  letter  of  application  has 
been  received  and  passed  upon.  The  photograph 
has  been  examined  and  judged.  The  candidate's 
estimates  of  his  own  virtues  and  vices  have  been 
scrutinized.  The  traditional  procedure  has  still 
further  devices  up  its  sleeve.  It  ordinarily 
requires  the  applicant  to  present  himself  for  a 
personal  interview,  and  very  commonly  instructs 
him  to  submit  testimonials  or  letters  of  recom- 
mendation from  others  who  know  him.  The  inter- 
/  view  and  the  testimonial  are  the  two  traditional 
methods  not  yet  taken  into  account  in  our  inquiry. 
For  the  present  we  shall  be  concerned,  and  that 
only  briefly,  with  the  interview. 

Since  standardized  interview  procedures  have 
not  been  widely  adopted,  we  can  define  the  inter- 
view merely  as  an  occasion  on  which,  usually  for 
a  very  short  time,  the  applicant  confronts  some 

60 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         61 

manager,  executive,  foreman  or  employment 
specialist,  who  undertakes  to  pass  further  judg- 
ments on  his  character,  and  especially  on  his  fit- 
ness for  a  particular  place  or  type  of  activity. 
What  happens  in  the  interview  we  cannot  specify, 
since  these  events  vary  with  the  interviewer,  his 
purposes,  and  his  general  conception  of  what  is 
significant.  We  may  assume,  however,  that  the 
applicant's  appearance  is  inspected,  his  physique 
noted,  his  mannerisms,  general  bearing  and  de- 
portment, his  dress  and  the  care  of  his  person 
observed.  He  meets  the  examiner,  and  may  be 
introduced  to  others  in  his  presence.  He  is  asked 
questions  and  given  opportunity  to  express  him- 
self in  speech  and  gesture.  The  import  of  the 
questions  we  cannot  specify,  but  they  are  pre- 
sumably relevant  to  his  past,  his  plans,  and  his 
qualifications,  his  general  habits,  interests,  and 
affiliations.  In  special  cases  he  may  be  taken  for 
a  tour  of  the  plant  or  institution,  or  he  may  be 
invited  to  luncheon,  or  otherwise  observed  in  pub- 
lic. But  the  traditional  interview  does  not  involve 
these  elaborations.  It  is  more  likely  to  consist  of 
a  brief  inspection  and  conversation,  lasting  but  a 
few  minutes. 
It  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  attempt  to  pre- 


62       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

scribe  what  should  occur  in  an  interview,  to  dictate 
questions  that  should  be  asked  nor  points  that 
should  be  noted,  nor  to  recommend  any  special 
mode  of  report  for  the  interviewer.  Such  an 
undertaking  can  be  usefully  attempted  only  after 
a  study  of  the  particular  requirements  of  a  given 
ease  or  type  of  cases.  We  shall  instead  concern 
ourselves  with  a  study  of  the  characteristic  results 
of  such  interviews,  from  the  point  of  view  of  their 
reliability.  The  method  will  be  that  of  noting  the 
amount  of  agreement  between  different  inter- 
viewers, when  they  have  passed  judgment  on  the 
same  candidates  for  the  same  positions. 

Experimental  Tests  of  Interviews 

Fifty-seven  applicants  presented  themselves  for 
examination  by  a  variety  of  methods.  A  small 
number  were  to  be  selected  from  these  for  appoint- 
ment to  positions  involving  personal  salesmanship 
of  a  well-known  service.  In  connection  with  this 
enterprise,  which  required  a  day  and  most  of  a 
night  for  its  completion,  twelve  sales  managers 
from  prominent  concerns  agreed  to  interview  the 
applicants  individually  and  to  rate  them  for  their 
suitability  for  the  positions  in  question.  All  of 
these  managers,  or  judges,  as  we  shall  now  call 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         63 

them,  were  experienced  in  the  judgment  of  char- 
acter by  this  method,  and  a  large  part  of  their  own 
activity  consisted  of  such  personnel  selection. 
Each  man  was  given  a  private  room  or  compart- 
ment, allowed  to  interview  each  candidate  for  a 
definite  period  which  was  the  same  in  all  cases. 
Each  judge  was  allowed  to  do  anything  he  pleased 
with  the  applicant  during  his  interview.  He  might 
talk  to  him,  ask  him  questions,  let  him  talk,  put 
him  through  some  exercise  or  test,  try  him  out  on 
any  manner  of  proposition.  But  at  the  end  of  the 
interview  each  judge  was  required  to  assign  to 
the  applicant  a  designation,  grade  or  description 
which  would  make  it  possible  for  him  in  the  end  to 
classify  the  candidates  in  several  groups  or  to 
rank  them  in  order  of  merit,  avoiding  ties  so  far 
as  possible.  The  basis  of  the  grading  was  to  be 
* ^ suitability  for  the  position  in  question.*' 

When  all  the  interviews  were  finished,  the 
grades  were  assembled  and  so  tabulated  and 
translated  that  each  applicant  received  from  each 
judge  a  rating  in  terms  of  his  standing  in  the 
group  of  57  applicants.  Position  1  was  considered 
the  most  suitable,  position  57  the  least  suitable, 
and  the  intermediate  positions  indicated  appro- 
priate   degrees    of    suitability.     The    complete 


64        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

tabulation  is  too  elaborate  to  be  given  here,  but 
we  may  take  a  purely  random  sample  as  illustr^,- 
ting  the  nature  of  the  results.  Each  applicant  was 
given  a  number  before  the  interviews  began,  these 
numbers  being  assigned  in  a  random  order.  In 
the  table  on  the  following  page  are  given  the  ranks 
assigned  to  the  first  ten  applicants,  by  all  of  the 
twelve  sales  managers  or  judges. 

The  facts  shown  by  the  table  are  instructive 
enough.  Almost  any  given  applicant  is  likely  to 
receive  ratings  placing  him  at  any  point  in  the 
scale,  from  first  position  to  last.  Applicant  C,  for 
example,  is  given  position  1  by  one  judge,  57  by 
another,  2  by  a  third,  and  53  by  a  fourth  judge; 
in  general  he  occupies  positions  all  along  the  scale 
of  ^  *  suitability. ' '  Much  the  same  result  is  to  be 
observed  with  all  of  the  applicants.  Occasionally 
an  applicant  is  found  whom  all  the  judges  tend  to 
judge  more  or  less  favorably.  Thus  applicant  I 
may  be  said  to  be  favorably  rated,  on  the  whole, 
although  even  here  the  positions  assigned  him 
range  all  the  way  from  2  to  36.  Some  applicants 
again  tend  more  or  less  uniformly  to  be  rated 
low.  Thus  applicants  A  and  B  are  on  the  whole 
rated  low,  but  their  ratings  range  from  6  to  55, 
and  judge  number  twelve,  who  was  unable  to  avoid 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         65 


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66        JUDGING  HUIVIAN  CHARACTER 

ties  in  his  ratings,  assigned  both  men  to  the  same 
position. 

"When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  these  judges  were 
not  casual  people  who  were  enlisted  in  the  investi- 
gation, but  expert  sales  managers,  experienced 
interviewers  and  directors  of  personnel,  and  that 
the  position  (salesmanship)  for  which  they  were 
rating  the  applicants  was  precisely  in  the  line  of 
work  in  which  they  had  developed  expertness  and 
acquired  positions  of  responsibility,  the  inference 
is  clear.  However  much  the  interview  may  be 
improved  by  better  methods  of  inquiry  and  report, 
in  its  traditional  form  it  is  highly  unreliable.  No 
better  evidence  is  required  than  the  spectacle  of 
two  different  expert  interviewers,  one  rejecting 
an  applicant  as  the  most  unsuitable  of  the  group 
of  fifty-seven,  another  selecting  him  as  the  choice 
specimen  of  the  lot. 

Similar  Investigations 

Binet  once  investigated  the  value  of  the  inter- 
view method  as  employed  by  experienced  teachers 
in  estimating  the  intelligence  of  pupils.  During 
an  afternoon  in  the  laboratory,  three  teachers 
interviewed  independently  five  identical  school 
children   and   reported   upon   their   intelligence. 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         67 

Each  judge  was  allowed  perfect  freedom  in  choice 
of  method,  but  the  judgment  was  to  be  based  on 
the  results  of  the  interview.  Binet  shows  that 
there  was  scarcely  any  agreement  among  the 
various  estimates,  although  each  teacher  had  con- 
siderable confidence  in  her  own  opinions.  He 
points  out  the  lack  of  uniformity  and  consistency 
in  the  devices  employed  to  discover  the  children's 
intelligence,  and  shows  how  unreliable  and  mis- 
leading such  unstandardized  procedures  are.  The 
replies  to  loosely  formulated  questions  about 
school  subjects,  observations  on  current  events, 
skill  or  expression  in  reading,  memory,  facial 
appearance,  shape  of  head,  behavior  of  the  eyes, 
and  similar  details  were  cited  by  teachers  as  sure 
signs  of  intelligence.  Some  teachers  were  found 
who  were  sure  that  not  more  than  once  in  a 
thousand  times  would  their  opinions  be  wrong. 
Binet  also  observed  that  these  judges,  before  the 
close  of  the  interview,  were  likely  to  utilize  a 
rough  approach  to  the  method  of  tests  and  he 
uses  the  experiment  as  an  occasion  for  pointing 
out  the  necessity  for  better  formulated  test 
methods  and  the  close  relation  between  the  more 
exact  methods  of  tests  and  the  rough  methods 
often  relied  on  in  the  personal  interview. 


68        JUDGING  HTOLAN  CHARACTER 

An  array  of  data  similar  in  character  to  the 
results  shown  in  the  foregoing  table  has  been 
reported  by  Scott.  Six  managers  in  charge  of  the 
selection  of  salesmen  in  different  districts,  inter- 
viewed thirty-six  applicants.  ^'Each  manager 
was  instructed  to  assume  that  he  alone  stood 
between  the  applicant  and  the  pay  roll  of  the 
company.  This  was  a  responsibility  that  every 
manager  was  familiar  with.  Following  the  inter- 
view each  manager  made  a  report  on  each  of  the 
thirty-six  applicants  and  indicated  which  was  the 
most  likely  candidate,  the  second  best,  the  third 
best,  etc.''  Scott  gives  a  detailed  table  showing 
the  considerable  disagreements  of  these  expert 
interviewers.  He  concludes,  ^ '  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
in  the  case  of  28  of  the  applicants,  these  six  man- 
agers disagreed  as  to  whether  the  individual 
should  be  placed  in  the  upper  half  of  the  group 
or  in  the  lower  half  of  the  group.  An  inspection 
of  the  table  shows  much  agreement  among  the  six 
managers,  but  the  disagreements  are  striking. 
Thus  applicant  17  was  thought  to  be  the  third  best 
of  the  group  by  Manager  C ;  but  was  placed  thir- 
tieth by  Manager  B.  Applicant  18  was  thought  to 
be  the  best  in  the  group  by  Manager  E ;  but  was 
ranked  as  tied  for  the  thirty-second  place  by  Man- 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         G9 

ager  D.  Yet  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  these 
Bix  gentlemen  agreed  even  more  closely  than  is 
the  case  with  employment  agents  in  general. ' ' 

Improvements  in  Method 

In  recent  years  much  thought  has  been  given 
to  the  improvement  of  the  interview  as  a  method 
of  judging  character.  Perhaps  the  most  obvious 
suggestion  atforded  by  our  present  inquiry  is 
similar  to  that  found  in  the  case  of  the  judgment 
of  photographs.  Since  individual  judges  are 
prone  to  error,  multiplication  of  the  judges  may 
well  serve  to  eliminate  the  error  and  to  set  forth 
such  truth  as  each  interviewer  is  able  to  discern. 
The  least  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  larger  the 
number  of  interviewers,  the  more  nearly  does  the 
final  record  approach  to  the  impression  the  appli- 
cant is  destined  to  make  on  the  world  at  large,  and 
this,  we  have  seen,  is  by  definition  his  true  char- 
acter. The  practical  adoption  of  the  suggestion  to 
increase  the  number  of  interviewers  may  of  course 
encounter  difficulties.  Multiplying  the  number  of 
judges  involves  longer  time,  greater  cost,  and 
more  thorough  record  keeping.  But  errors  in 
judging  character  also  lead  to  delay,  expense, 
waste,  and  extra  effort.    From  the  point  of  view  of 


70       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

an  industry  or  an  institution  the  question  is 
largely  one  that  can  be  solved  by  simple  arithme* 
tic,  a  direct  computation  of  profit  and  loss  by  the 
two  methods.  From  the  point  of  view  of  society  at 
large  and  especially  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
applicant  whose  character  is  passed  upon  and 
whose  destiny  is  thereby  definitely  affected,  the 
issue  transcends  the  bounds  of  arithmetic. 

Aside  from  the  increased  validity  secured  by 
the  multiplication  of  interviewers,  it  is  quite  cer- 
tain that  the  individual  interviewer  can  increase 
the  reliability  of  his  judgments  in  most  cases,  by 
the  proper  attention  to  his  methods.  This  does 
not  mean  necessarily  reducing  the  whole  inter- 
view to  a  rigid  and  formal  interrogatory.  Instead 
the  informal  impression,  the  vague  general  reac- 
tion, should  be  given  its  due  weight,  providing  that 
the  interviewer  has  learned  that  his  reactions  to 
personal  appearance,  attitude,  bearing,  manner, 
of  others,  fairly  represent  the  reactions  of 
others.  Private  ** hunches,''  personal  antipathies 
arising  from  particular  idiosyncrasies  such  as 
complexion,  dress,  accent,  diction,  should  not  be 
permitted  to  overweight  the  judgment.  But  the 
general  impression,  which  represents  the  most 
probable  first  effect  of  the  presence  of  the  candi- 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         71 

date    on    others,    is    usually   not    unimportant, 
and  is  worth  recording.    It  should,  moreover, 
be  recorded  as  an  independent  item,  and  not  con- 
fused with  the  verdict  based  on  other  data. 

Next  to  the  importance  of  segregating  personal 
impression  from  other  items  is  the  importance  of 
discriminating  choice  of  questions.  The  interview 
is  so  largely  ,a  matter  of  interrogation  and  reply 
that  the  question  easily  tends  to  become  perfunc- 
tory, and  to  be  merely  a  means  of  occupying  the 
candidate  while  a  general  scrutiny  permits  the 
development  of  general  impressions  of  favorable- 
ness  or  unfavorableness.  The  method  of  personal 
interview  in  many  ways  combines  the  use  of  appli- 
cation forms  and  the  use  of  trade  tests.  In  both 
these  cases  progress  has  come  through  sharp 
determii^ation  of  the  respective  relevance  of 
various  questions  and  the  appropriate  weighting 
of  the  corresponding  items  in  the  report.  In  gen- 
eral, the  interview  should  supplement  the  applica- 
tion blank  and  pave  the  way  for  definite  and 
objective  trade  tests. 

In  the  first  place  previous  job  analysis  and 
specifications  should  enable  the  interviewer  to 
know  definitely  what  information  he  can  look  for 
that  bears  directly  on  the  candidate 's  competence. 


72        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

He  should  proceed  directly  toward  this  informa- 
tion, as  soon  at  least  as  a  few  general  introductory 
questions  establish  a  general  feeling  of  rapport 
between  interviewer  and  candidate.  Each  rele- 
vant characteristic  should  be  independently 
scored,  in  as  objective  a  fashion  as  rating  scales 
will  permit,  and,  if  time  allows,  definite  record 
should  be  made  of  those  acts,  words,  or  indica- 
tions which  serve  as  the  basis  of  the  judgment. 
This  will  enable  others  to  make  their  own  judg- 
ments and  to  check  up  the  impressions  of  the 
interviewer.  Questions  should  be  so  framed  as 
actually  to  elicit  information,  and  not  to  permit 
of  specious  correctness  through  random  replies  or 
through  suggested  answers.  In  these  respects  the 
work  of  the  interview  is  the  same  as  that  under- 
taken by  the  social  worker,  the  physician,  the 
lawyer,  in  the  development  of  a  personal  history 
or  a  section  of  testimony.  The  art  consists 
essentially  in  (a)  establishing  a  favorable  rap- 
port; (b)  discriminating  between  relevant  and 
irrelevant  questions  and  replies;  (c)  on  the  one 
hand  the  elimination  of,  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
effective  and  deliberate  use  of,  suggestive  ques- 
tions; (d)  independent  recording  of  facts  elicited 
as    distinguished    from    inferences    drawn;    (e) 


THE  PERSONAL  INTERVIEW         73 

standardization  or  consistency  in  form  of  verdict 
and  in  terminology  of  report;  (f)  sagacious  syn- 
thesis of  varied  independent  items;  and  (g) 
typical  or  representative  personal  reaction  to  that 
total  ensemble  of  elements  that  constitutes  the 
candidate's  appearance  and  attitude.- 

We  have  not  of  course  assumed  that  everything 
hinges  upon  the  outcome  of  the  interview.  The 
interview  is  only  one  of  a  series  of  traditional 
stages  which  we  have  set  out  to  investigate  as 
best  we  may.  There  remains  still  for  our 
consideration  that  most  dignified  and  widely 
patronized  technic,  the  testimonial  or  recommen- 
dation, with  the  examination  of  which  our  next 
chapter  will  be  occupied. 

2  Prospective  interviewers  may  be  referred  to  two  cliapters  on 
''How  to  Ask  Questions"  and  "The  Observational  Method,"  in  the 
book  on  Employment  Psychology,  by  Henry  C.  Link.  These  chap- 
ters are  full  of  valuable  suggestions  looking  toward  the  improve- 
ment of  the  method  of  the  personal  interview. 


CHAPTER  VI 
RECOMMENDATIONS  AND  TESTIMONIALS 

Letters  of  recommendation,  in  spite  of  the  com- 
mon addiction  to  them,  are  often  sealed  with  a 
shrug  and  opened  with  a  smile.  These  strange 
attitudes  toward  a  hallowed  institution  have  a 
complex  origin.  For  one  thing  the  motives  back 
of  the  writing  of  such  letters  are  not  always  un- 
mixed. The  letter  may  be  only  one  way  of  *  *  speed- 
ing the  parting  guest.''  The  enthusiasm  of  the 
writer  may  indicate  only  his  joy  over  a  separation 
long  overdue.  More  perfunctory  comments,  on  the 
other  hand,  may  be  less  closely  related  to  the 
mediocrity  of  the  candidate  than  to  a  personal 
apathy  with  regard  to  his  destiny.  Of  the  writ- 
ing of  testimonials  there  is  no  end,  and  the  very 
familiarity  of  the  task  may  conspire  with  the 
limitations  of  vocabulary  to  give  a  conventional- 
ized tone  to  such  letters. 

With  these  and  many  other  factors  involved  in 
the  evaluation  of  testimonials  we  are  not  now  con- 
cerned.   Instead,  we  shall  consider  the  judgments 

74 


EECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     75 

of  character  passed  by  associates  and  acquaint- 
ances, when  they  are  delivered  under  the  relatively 
simple  motivation  of  fairness,  candor  and  accu- 
racy. These  opinions  of  associates,  previous  em- 
ployers, supervisors,  teachers,  and  others  are  pre- 
sumed to  be  on  the  basis  of  a  fuller  perception  of 
character  than  are  those  of  the  interviewer,  the 
application  clerk,  and  the  inspector  of  photo- 
graphs. Based,  as  they  commonly  are,  on  longer 
and  more  direct  experience  of  the  applicant 's  con- 
duct, they  represent  better  samples  of  the  way 
the  candidate 's  character  is  manifested.  But  this 
is  far  from  implying  that  such  verdicts  are  wholly 
reliable  or  invariably  correct.  "What  information 
has  the  experimental  method  yielded  that  may 
enable  us  to  evaluate  the  validity  of  these  judg- 
ments of  associates? 

Testimonial  Disagreement 

For  one  thing,  the  first  table  of  results  given 
in  Chapter  IV  shows  the  average  deviations  of  the 
judgments  of  twenty-four  associates  in  reporting 
the  relative  standing  of  twenty-five  people  in 
several  traits.  These  deviations  (see  page  49) 
range  from  3.5  steps  and  3.7  steps  in  judging  Vul- 
garity and  Intelligence  to  5.9  steps  in  estimating 


1 


76        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Refinement.  Bearing  in  mind  that  chance  arrange- 
ments would  have  given  average  deviations  of 
only  a  little  over  6  steps,  the  disagreement  on 
Refinement  is  seen  to  be  almost  as  great  as  chance 
would  produce.  The  closest  agreements,  3.5  and 
3.7  steps,  are  over  half  as  great  as  chance  devia- 
tions would  have  been.  Several  conclusions  are 
at  once  suggested. 

Acquaintances  disagree  considerably  in  their  es- 
timates of  the  traits  of  candidates.  In  judging 
some  traits  they  disagree  almost  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. Their  disagreement  varies  considerably 
with  the  trait  in  question.  It  could  also  be  shown 
that  their  disagreement  varies  with  the  candidate 
who  is  being  judged.  In  order  for  there  to  be 
disagreement,  some  or  perhaps  all  of  the  estimates 
must  be  in  error.  Since  disagreement  implies  er- 
rors and  errors  are  what  destroy  validity,  we  can 
profitably  examine  somewhat  more  closely  into  the 
nature  and  location  of  these  disagreements. 

Data  are  available  from  several  studies  in 
which  longer  arrays  of  traits  were  considered. 
The  numbers  of  judges  (acquaintances)  were 
smaller  and  the  results  lack  the  finality  that  we 
could  desire.  But  the  principle  involved  is  clear 
and  the  independent  studies  give  such  consistent 


RECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     77 

results  that  they  must  serve  as  the  point  of  de- 
parture for  future  inquiry.  In  the  one  case  (Cat- 
tell)  twelve  scientific  men  estimated  the  character 
of  five  of  their  colleagues,  assigning  them  grades 
in  all  the  traits.  In  the  other  case  (Norsworthy) 
nine  members  of  a  college  organization  were  sim- 
ilarly judged  by  five  of  their  intimate  associates. 
In  both  cases  the  judges  disagreed  with  one  an- 
other in  characteristic  ways.  In  particular,  their 
disagreement  was  measurably  greater  in  some 
traits  than  in  others.  If  in  each  case  we  take  the 
average  disagreement  on  all  traits  as  a  basis 
(100),  we  can  express  closer  agreement  and 
greater  disagreement  than  this  standard  by  figures 
correspondingly  lower  and  higher  than  100.  This 
enables  us  to  compare  all  the  traits  in  both  the 
studies,  and  to  combine  the  two  sets  of  results. 
In  the  follomng  table  the  results  are  thus  ex- 
pressed. The  average  deviations  of  the  judges 
have  in  each  trait  been  divided  by  the  average  of 
all  of  the  traits.  Decimals  have  been  dropped 
from  all  of  the  measures.  The  traits  are  arranged 
in  order  from  most  consistent  to  least  consistent, 
on  the  basis  of  the  combined  results  of  both 
studies. 


78       JUDGING  IIUM:AN  CHARACTER 

The  Hierarchy  of  Consistency 

The  differences  between  the  results  from  the 
two  investigations  are  not  great,  and  can  usually 
be  understood  by  reference  to  the  personnel  and 
circumstances  of  the  two  occasions.  Most  impor- 
tant are  the  average  results.  They  disclose  a 
fairly  definite  hierarchy  of  consistency,  for  the 
circumstances  described.  At  the  upper  end  of 
the  series  the  traits  are  judged  with  approxi- 
mately 80  per  cent  of  the  standard  disagreement ; 
at  the  lower  end,  with  over  120  per  cent  of  this 
standard.  The  traits  fall  into  three  not  entirely 
arbitrary  groups,  which  we  may  designate  A,  B, 
and  C  groups.  The  B  group  represents  close  to 
average  disagreement,  the  figures  being  not  more 
than  5  per  cent  removed  from  the  standard  (96  to 
105  inclusive).  The  A  group  contains  traits  on 
which  disagreement  is  relatively  small;  the  C 
group  contains  those  on  which  disagreement  is 
relatively  great. 

If  an  associate  or  acquaintance  reports  upon  an 
A  trait,  there  is  reason  to  expect  the  testimony  of 
other  associates  to  agree  fairly  well  with  this  re- 
port. A  single  testimonial  relating  to  such  traits 
has  relatively  high  validity.    But  if  an  associate 


RECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     79 


Showing  the  Amount  of  Disagreement  among  Judges  in 

Estimating^  on  the  Basis  of  Acquaintance,  the 

Traits  of  Others,  in  Two  Investigations 

Eelative  Divergence  of  the  Various  Judges 


Trait 


>i 

.xj  to 

P 

§J 

6^ 

CM 

Classification 


Efficiency 

Originality  . . . . 
Perseverance  . . 

Quickness 

Judgment 

Clearness  

Energv   

Will   ", 

Mental  Balance 

Breadth    

Leadership 

Intensity    

Reasonableness 
Independence  . . 
Refinement  .... 
Physical  Health 
Emotions   

Courage   

Unselfishness   . . 

Integrity 

Cooperativeness 
Cheerfulness  . . 
Kindliness    


75 

92 

95 

77 

75 

101 

90 

88 

100 

78 

104 

75 

75 

109 

85 

98 

110 

81 

100 

92 

90 

103 

85 

113 

115 

86 

104 

98 

90 

116 

115 

92 

120 

91 

100 

119 

115 

106 

104 

130 

125 

113 

130 

112 

120 

125 

83 
86 
88 
89 
89 
90 
91 
91 

96 

96 

96 

99 

100 

101 

103 

103 

105 

109 
110 
117 
119 
121 
123 


Class  A 

Median  89 

Close  Agreement 


Class  B 

Median  100 

Fair  Agreement 


Class  C 

Median  118 

Poor  Agreement 


80        JUDGING  HUiVIAN  CHAEACTE.R 

reports  upon  a  C  trait,  there  is  abundant  reason 
to  expect  other  associates  to  deliver  radically  dif- 
ferent judgments.  A  testimonial  relating  to  such 
traits  should  be  viewed  with  caution,  for  it  rep- 
resents but  one  of  many  discordant  estimates. 
Single  testimonials  relating  to  the  B  traits,  while 
not  inviting  active  suspicion,  should  nevertheless 
provoke  a  certain  reserve.  Some  associates  will 
agree  with  it  fairly  closely,  but  others  will  have 
opinions  of  their  own,  and  all  will  be  worth  con- 
sidering. 

In  general,  then,  the  higher  the  trait  stands  in 
the  hierarchy,  the  greater  the  validity  of  the  sin- 
gle testimonial.  The  lower  the  trait  stands  in  the 
table,  the  greater  the  justification  for  delajdng 
action  until  all  the  votes  are  in.  However  incom- 
plete this  list  of  traits  may  be,  it  includes  a  fairly 
rounded  analysis  of  character  in  the  vocabulary 
of  ordinary  speech  and  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion. Such  a  scale  of  validity  constitutes  a  useful 
guide  to  the  evaluation  of  the  testimonial  of  char- 
acter. 

Moreover  the  analysis  suggests  a  general  prin- 
ciple, on  the  basis  of  which  other  terms  or  traits 
may  be  classified.  The  A  traits  we  may  designate 
as  ** objective,''  in  the  sense  that  they  represent 


RECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     81 

reactions  to  objects  and  impersonal  situations  and 
tasks,  and  are  likely  to  result  in  objective  prod- 
ucts such  as  inventions,  factories,  books,  bank  ac- 
counts, salaries,  positions,  records,  etc.  These  ob- 
jective products  are  definite  manifestations  of  the 
traits  in  question  and  they  are  open  to  general 
inspection.  The  C  traits,  on  the  other  hand,  rep- 
resent reactions  to  the  presence  and  character  of 
other  persons.  They  are  personal,  social,  moral; 
they  do  not  so  definitely  produce  objective  prod- 
ucts open  to  general  inspection.  Instead,  they 
lead  mainly  to  personal  and  emotional  reactions 
on  the  part  of  others;  hence  we  may  designate 
them  *' subjective^'  traits.  The  B  traits  stand 
midway  between  these  extremes  or  partake  of 
both  characteristics.  New  traits  or  terms  may 
be  inserted  in  the  hierarchy  with  considerable 
confidence,  under  the  guidance  of  this  general 
principle. 

A  rough  check  on  the  validity  of  this  table  of 
traits  is  to  be  found  in  the  data  reported  by 
Miner,  from  a  study  of  the  estimates  of  certain 
traits  of  students  by  their  instructors.  The  des- 
ignated traits  were  Common  Sense,  Energy,  Ini- 
tiative, Leadership,  Keliability,  and  General  Abil- 
ity.   In  order  to  ascertain  the  reliability  of  these 


82        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

estimates,  Miner  compared  the  verdicts  of  differ- 
ent judges  in  various  ways,  all  of  which  gave 
much  the  same  results.  He  does  not  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  some  of  these  traits  show 
higher  reliability  than  do  others,  but  his  data 
show  this  to  have  been  the  case.  If  we  take  the 
results  from  his  larger  group  of  students,  men 
in  the  School  of  Applied  Science,  the  order  of 
reliability,  from  high  to  low,  is  Energy,  Leader- 
ship, General  Ability,  Reliability,  Common  Sense, 
Initiative. 

Of  these  trait-terms,  two  are  to  be  found  in  the 
table  we  have  just  been  considering — Energy  and 
Leadership.  General  Ability  is  perhaps  nearest 
to  our  Efficiency,  Reliability  to  Integrity,  Initia- 
tive to  Independence,  and  Common  Sense  to  Rea- 
sonableness. If  these  interpretations  of  Miner's 
terms  are  fair,  the  table  shortly  to  be  given  shows 
that  his  results  approximate  very  closely  to  what 
our  general  table  would  have  led  us  to  expect. 
The  data  from  the  smaller  group  of  women  stu- 
dents, however,  do  not  agree  so  well  with  our 
table.  The  three  traits  that  have  highest  relia- 
bility in  Miner's  study  of  the  men  students  and 
the  three  traits  with  lowest  reliability,  are 
grouped  quite  as  they  would  have  been  inferred 


EECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     83 

from  our  table,  although  the  precise  order  varies 
slightly. 

Comparison  of  Two  Experiments 


Order  of  Reliability  of 
Estimates 

Trait 

From  Miner's 
Results 

From  Our 
Table 

Enererv  ( Enere'v) 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

2 

Leadership   (Leadership) 

General  Ability  (Efficiency)... 

Reliability  (Integrity)    

Common  Sense  (Reasonableness) 
Initiative  (Independence) 

3 

1 

6 
4 
5 

Folsom  has  reported  a  statistical  study  of  char- 
acter estimation,  in  which  college  men  rated  one 
another  for  a  series  of  traits.  The  traits  selected 
were  in  only  a  few  cases  comparable  to  those  in 
the  table  we  have  been  considering,  and  the  varia- 
bility of  judges  was  shown  only  by  correlating  the 
group  judgments  of  two  groups  of  fourteen  judges 
each.  In  spite,  however,  of  the  different  method, 
Cheerfulness  and  Kindness  were  found  to  be  the 
least  consistently  judged  of  all  the  traits,  and  more 
objective  characteristics  such  as  Personal  Appear- 
ance and  Handsomeness  were  the  most  consistent. 
Perseverance,  and  Enthusiasm   (similar  to  our 


84       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

term  Energy)  were  included  in  the  list.  These 
fall  in  the  section  of  our  table  designated  the  A 
group,  and  Folsom  also  found  them  more  con- 
sistently rated  than  Kindliness  and  Cheerfulness, 
which  fall  in  our  C  Group. 

Objective  and  Subjective  Traits 

It  is  obvious  that  the  objectivity  or  subjectivity 
of  these  traits,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  have  used 
those  terms,  is  not  solely  a  function  of  the  mean- 
ing of  the  trait.  Depending  on  the  circumstances 
of  acquaintance,  a  given  trait  may  tend  to  be 
either  more  or  less  objectively  or  subjectively  dis- 
played. Thus  the  estimates  of  employees  by  their 
employers,  of  pupils  by  their  teachers,  of  children 
by  parents,  may  be  based  on  different  sorts  of  data 
from  those  used  in  estimates  of  superiors  by  their 
subordinates,  or  of  superiors  or  subordinates  by 
each  other.  The  precise  manner  in  which  the  cir- 
cumstances of  acquaintance  determine  the  validity 
and  variability  of  character  estimates  represents 
a  field  of  inquiry  that  is  almost  entirely  unex- 
plored. 

That  the  ** objectivity''  of  the  trait,  as  measured 
by  the  agreement  of  judges,  varies  with  the  cir- 
cumstances of  acquaintance  may  be  shown  by  the 


KECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     85 

following  brief  report  of  another  experiment. 
Eight  college  students  (juniors  and  seniors)  rated 
five  of  their  instructors  for  several  traits  con- 
tained in  the  Cattell-Norsworthy  list.  In  the  fol- 
lowing tabulation,  these  seven  traits  are  given  and 
in  appropriate  columns  the  order  of  agreement  of 
the  judges,  along  with  similar  rankings  from  the 
data  of  Norsworthy  and  Cattell.  The  trait  on 
which  the  judges  agreed  most  closely  is  given  first 
rank,  the  one  on  which  they  agreed  the  least  is 
ranked  last. 

When  the  judges  are  coordinate  in  status  with 
those  who  are  judged,  the  results  are  in  accord 
with  the  general  table.  Students  judge  students 
in  much  the  same  way  that  teachers  judge  teach- 

Ranking  op  Traits,  fob  Agreement  of  Judges 


Trait 

Teachers 

Judging 

Teachers 

(Cattell) 

Students 

Judging 

Students 

Morsworthy) 

Students 
Judging 
Teachers 

Efficiency  

Energy  

Leadership 

Independence    

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
6 

2 
4 
3 
1 
6 
5 
7 

5 
3 

7 
6 

Cooperativeness    

Cheerfulness    

Kindliness    

4 
2 
1 

86       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

ers,  from  this  point  of  view.  But  when  the  judges 
and  the  judged  are  not  coordinate,  different  re- 
sults may  often  be  found.  Thus  the  students 
agree  most  closely,  in  judging  their  instructors, 
on  Cheerfulness  and  Kindliness,  precisely  those 
traits  on  which  coordinates  disagree  most  mark- 
edly. They  disagree  widely  in  judging  such  traits 
as  Efficiency  and  Leadership.  Obviously  the  cir- 
cumstances of  acquaintance,  rather  than  the  na- 
ture of  the  trait  as  such,  are  responsible  for  these 
differences.  These  students  knew  their  instruc- 
tors from  actual  classroom  experience.  When  the 
instructor  was  cheerful,  he  was  cheerful  to  the 
whole  class,  and  his  kindliness  was  not  of  the  per- 
sonal but  rather  of  the  institutional  variety.  By 
these  traits  the  students  were  more  or  less  sim- 
ilarly impressed.  But  the  instructor's  Leader- 
ship or  Efficiency  are  not  general  classroom  traits. 
Judgments  on  them  would  be  considerably  influ- 
enced by  chance  or  variable  individual  knowledge 
of  the  instructor's  extra  classroom  successes.  As 
a  result  of  these  circumstances  of  acquaintance, 
therefore,  the  objectivity  of  the  trait  will  vary. 
Closely  related  to  this  general  point  is  the  re- 
sult of  comparisons  reported  by  Mann,  of  esti- 


EECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     87 

mates  of  the  traits  of  graduate  engineering  ap- 
prentices by  their  foremen  and  by  experts  who 
were  their  superior  officers  and  less  closely  in 
touch  with  their  actual  work.  **The  order  deter- 
mined by  the  ratings  by  half  the  foremen  agreed 
fairly  well  with  the  order  determined  by  ratings 
by  the  other  half  (correlation  coefficient  .48) ;  and 
the  order  of  merit  in  the  judgment  of  one  expert 
agreed  fairly  well  with  the  order  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  other  (correlation  coefficient  .53) ; 
but  the  foremen's  order  and  the  expert's  order 
did  not  agree  so  well  (correlation  coefficient 
.24).''^ 

A  recent  investigation^  of  such  problems  in 
connection  with  the  rating  of  teachers  was  under- 
taken at  the  Bureau  of  Reference,  Research  and 
Statistics,  in  the  Department  of  Education,  New 
York  City.  In  this  study  teachers  in  six  different 
schools  were  rated  by  supervisors  and  associates 
in  ten  diif  erent  traits.  The  *  *  objectivity ' '  of  these 
traits  was  determined  by  finding  the  closeness  of 
agreement  of  the  various  judges  on  each  trait. 

1  C.  R.  Mann.  "A  Study  of  Engineering  Education,"  Carnegie 
Foundation  Bulletin,  No.  11,  1918. 

2  "The  Reliability  of  Judgment  of  Personal  Traits,"  by  John 
Slawson,  Masters'  Essayy  Department  of  Psychology,  Columbia 
University,  1920. 


88       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

This  *^ objectivity*'  of  the  traits  varied  consider- 
ably from  school  to  school.  Of  the  eleven  traits 
considered,  " Punctuality'*  occupied  second  posi- 
tion in  two  schools  and  either  ninth  or  tenth  in 
the  other  four  schools.  *^  Professional  Interest 
and  Growth**  occupied  tenth  place  in  one  school 
and  second  place  in  another.  ''Understanding  of 
Children**  occupied  first  place  in  one  school  and 
tenth  place  in  another.  Four  traits  behaved 
somewhat  more  consistently,  in  that ' '  they  at  least 
stay  in  either  the  upper  or  lower  half  of  the  series 
of  eleven**  in  all  the  schools. 

The  investigator,  Slawson,  calls  attention  to  the 
general  importance  of  such  a  result,  in  the  fol- 
lowing words.  *'If  this  group  disagreement  ia 
inherent  in  rating,  then  universal  procedures  be- 
come an  impossibility.  Rating  will  of  necessity 
have  to  remain  a  local  problem.  The  trait  that 
lends  itself  best  to  objective  valuation  in  one 
school  of  a  large  school  system  or  in  one  depart- 
ment of  a  large  industrial  organization  wdll  not 
do  so  in  another  school  or  in  another  department. 
The  choice  of  traits  would  then  become  a  special 
group  or  special  unit  problem.** 


RECOMMENDATIONS,  TESTIMONIALS     89 

Detailed  inquiry  into  the  reasons  for  such  dis- 
crepant results  in  various  sets  of  judgments 
showed  that  the  uniformity,  explicitness  and  ac- 
cessibility of  criteria  were  the  most  important 
factors.  General  acquaintance  was  not  found  to 
be  important,  although  *^  acquaintance  with  the 
activities  appertaining  to  a  particular  trait" 
played  a  considerable  role. 

Such  results  clearly  show  that  it  is  fallacious 
to  lay  down  general  statements  of  the  precise  rela- 
tive validity  attaching  to  judgments  of  acquaint- 
ances in  the  case  of  various  traits.  Instead,  the 
safe  procedure  is  that  of  deducing  general  prin- 
ciples, as  we  attempted  to  do  in  previous  para- 
graphs, and  of  applying  these  principles  to  the 
particular  situation  in  which  recommendations  are 
to  be  evaluated.  If  this  process  implies  a  certain 
expertness  on  the  part  of  emplojnoient  managers 
and  executives,  this  is  not  to  be  lamented.  Even 
in  the  case  of  more  exact  measures,  such  as  trade 
tests  and  placement  tests,  it  is  the  rule  that  tests 
found  effective  in  the  selection  of  workers  for  a 
given  operation  are  not  always  effective  in  a  dif- 
ferent industry  or  in  a  similar  industry  under 
different  managerial,  technical  or  marketing  cir- 


90        JUDGING  HUjVIAN  CHAEACTER 

cumstances.  In  the  use  of  these  methods  also 
technical  expertness  is  required.  Expertness,  in 
the  sense  of  mastery  of  the  scientific  methods  un- 
derlying the  work,  is  rapidly  coming  to  be  the  pre- 
requisite of  all  effective  forms  of  personnel  work. 


CHAPTER  VII 

COMMON  SOURCES  OF  ERROR 
AND  THEIR  CORRECTION 

Special  Tendencies  of  Judgment 

Certain  common  sources  of  error  in  the  judg- 
ment of  others,  even  under  generally  favorable 
circumstances,  may  be  pointed  out.  The  central 
tendency  of  judgment  is  an  influence  that  has  been 
clearly  observed  in  judgments  of  all  sorts,  even 
in  judgments  of  very  simple  perceptual  materials. 
Judgments  of  time,  weight,  force,  brightness, 
extent  of  movement,  length,  area,  size  of  angles, 
have  all  shown  the  same  tendency  to  gravitate 
toward  a  median  magnitude,  the  result  being  that 
stimuli  above  that  point  in  the  objective  scale 
are  underestimated  and  stimuli  below  overesti- 
mated, while  the  median  magnitude  itself  is  in- 
vested with  no  constant  error.  Just  as  our 
experience  with  a  class,  race  or  social  group 
results  in  the  conception  of  a  type  which  shall  in 
some  way  represent  the  central  tendency  of  the 
group,  and  from  which  the  separate  members  shall 

91 


92        JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

deviate  the  least,  so  also  in  an  experiment  on  sen- 
sible discrimination  we  become  adapted  to  the 
median  value  of  the  series,  tend  to  expect  it,  to 
assimilate  all  other  values  toward  it,  and  to 
greater  or  less  degree  to  substitute  it  for  them. 

Such  a  tendency  seems  to  be  present  in  our 
judgments  of  human  traits — we  underestimate  the 
brilliant  and  overestimate  the  stupid.  Terman 
has  shown  very  clearly  the  marked  tendency  on  the 
part  of  teachers  and  parents  to  overestimate  the 
intelligence  of  retarded  children,  and  to  underes- 
timate the  intelligence  of  superior  children.  He 
has  moreover  pointed  out  some  of  the  factors 
underlying  these  errors.  To  what  degree  the  cen- 
tral tendency  of  judgment  affects  the  estimates 
of  other  traits  than  intelligence  we  cannot  know 
precisely  until  we  have  more  accurate  means  of 
measuring  these  traits  objectively. 

Another  possible  source  of  error  is  suggested 
by  the  fact  that  estimated  traits  correlate  quite 
closely  with  one  another.  Thus  in  an  earlier  re- 
port of  the  estimates  of  college  students  by  their 
friends  the  writer  found  the  correlations  of  In- 
telligence with  Neatness,  Humor,  Conceit,  Beauty, 
Snobbishness  and  Refinement  to  be  .39,  .59,  .44, 
.34,  .43,  and  .49  respectively.    In  this  connection 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  93 

the  following  comment  was  then  made.  **How 
far  these  figures  measure  definite  relations  be- 
tween different  and  specific  traits,  how  far  they 
measure  the  degree  to  which  one 's  impressions  of 
various  traits  conspire  to  make  up  one's  notion 
of  other  characteristics,  or  how  far  they  measure 
only  the  degree  of  confusion  that  exists  as  to  the 
precise  meanings  of  the  various  words,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  say. ' ' 

Thorndike  has  more  recently  reported  similar 
findings.  ^^In  a  study  made  in  1915  of  employees 
of  two  large  industrial  corporations,  it  appeared 
that  the  estimates  of  the  same  man  in  a  number 
of  different  traits  such  as  intelligence,  industry, 
technical  skill,  reliability,  etc.,  etc.,  were  very 
highly  correlated  and  evenly  correlated.  It  con- 
sequently appeared  probable  that  those  giving  the 
ratings  were  unable  to  analyze  out  these  different 
aspects  of  the  person's  nature  and  achievement 
and  rate  each  in  independence  of  the  others.  Their 
ratings  were  apparently  affected  by  a  marked 
tendency  to  think  of  the  person  in  general  as 
rather  good  or  rather  inferior  and  to  color  the 
judgments  of  the  qualities  by  this  general  feel- 
ing." Similar  tendencies  were  found  to  exist  in 
the  ratings  of  army  officers,  aviation  cadets,  and 


94       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

school  teachers.  *' Obviously  a  halo  of  general 
merit  is  extended  to  influence  the  rating  for  the 
special  ability,  or  vice  versa/' 

Kohs  and  Irle  also  call  attention  to  this  bias 
in  the  judgment  of  one  trait  by  the  impression  of 
another.  **It  seems  very  probable  that  when  one 
is  passing  a  subjective  judgment  on  the  question 
of  whether  Person  A  possesses  a  certain  amount 
of  trait  a  or  6  or  c  or  d,  that  his  judgment  of 
practically  all  these  is  affected  by  some  constant 
factor  X.  For  example  here  is  Tom  Jones.  Bill 
Smith  is  requested  to  record  a  personal  estimate 
of  his  character,  habits,  self-control,  intelligence, 
sociability— whether  excellent,  good,  fair,  very 
poor.  What  probably  occurs  when  Bill  estimates, 
is  that  each  of  his  judgments  is  affected  by  a  con- 
stant factor,  possibly  unconscious,  such  as  ^Tom 
Jones  is  an  excellent  fellow.  I  like  him  because 
his  ideas  are  very  attractive  to  me.'  This  ex- 
ample is  not  typical,  of  course,  but  is  merely  util- 
ized to  illustrate  the  point. ' '  College  teachers  who 
are  required  to  grade  the  essays  and  papers  of 
their  own  students  are  usually  aware  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  separating  the  quality  of  the  product 
from  a  bias  for  or  against  some  special  and  often 
quite  irrelevant  feature  of  the  student's  person- 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  95 

ality.  The  managers  of  political  campaigns  soon 
learn  that  trivial  and  irrelevant  details  of  phy- 
sique, taste  or  afiSliation  are  likely  to  be  as  effec- 
tive in  determining  the  fate  of  their  candidates 
as  are  actual  fitness  for  office  or  the  merits  of 
platforms.  Gowin  found  that  successful  execu- 
tives were  characterized  by  superior  physique. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  the  relation  here  is  not 
a  biological  but  a  psychological  one — superior 
physique  provokes  a  general  confidence  and  trust, 
and  suggests  authority,  power  and  responsibility. 
It  may  of  course  also  contribute  psychologically 
toward  the  self-confidence  of  the  individual  execu- 
tive. 

This  **halo,''  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  demon- 
strated, is  not  to  be  confused  with  what  the  writer 
has  elsewhere  called  by  the  very  awkward  term 
**general  standout-ishness.''  Thus  mental  tests 
of  college  students  were  found  to  correlate  not 
only  with  estimated  Intelligence  (.62),  but  also 
quite  closely  with  Humor  (.55),  Snobbishness 
(.53),  Beauty  (.40),  Neatness  (.36),  and  Refine- 
ment (.34).  This  may  mean  either  **that  a  sense 
of  humor,  a  tendency  toward  self-esteem,  physical 
attractiveness  and  a  gentle  manner  dispose  one's 
associates  to  think  favorably  of  one's  general  men- 


96        JUDGING  HUIVIAN  CHARACTER 

tal  endowment"  or  else  that  **an  individual  who 
has  sufficient  distinction  to  stand  out  prominently 
in  any  of  these  estimated  traits  is  possessed  of  a 
nervous  system  which  enables  her  to  accomplish 
the  work  of  these  mental  tests  with  correspond- 
ing efficiency,"  as  well  as  to  predispose  the  judges 
favorably  toward  her  other  traits. 

The  possible  sources  of  error  we  have  consid- 
ered may  be  briefly  summarized.  There  is  first, 
the  central  tendency  of  judgment,  which  tends  to 
deflect  all  estimates  toward  an  average.  In  the 
second  place  there  is  the  *  ^  standout-ishness "  of 
individuals  which  deflects  estimates  of  particular 
traits  toward  the  general  estimate  of  the  person- 
ality as  a  whole.  The  third  tendency  is  for  the 
strong  impression  of  one  trait  to  bias  the  estimates 
of  all  others.  The  first  of  these  three  tendencies 
arises  from  a  general  feature  of  all  judgments. 
The  last  two  are  in  part  justified  by  the  general 
*  Equality  of  organisms,"  on  the  basis  of  which 
many  of  the  various  traits  of  an  individual  do 
tend  to  greater  or  less  degree  to  be  generally  high 
or  low  or  mediocre.  But  partial  justification  in 
the  long  run  is  no  excuse  for  overlooking  the  error 
in  any  particular  case. 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  97 

Testimonial  Validity 

Agreement  of  judges  is  of  course  not  in  itself 
a  guaranty  of  the  correctness  of  their  verdicts. 
In  the  ease  of  recommendations  and  testimonials, 
however,  which  are  relied  on  in  the  absence  of 
more  objective  data,  the  validity  of  an  estimate 
is  to  a  considerable  extent  a  function  of  the  agree- 
ment of  that  estimate  with  others.  In  the  case 
of  several  traits,  such,  for  example,  as  musical 
ability,  trade  skill  in  various  fields,  scholastic  pro- 
ficiency, and  intelligence,  it  should  be  possible  to 
check  up  the  validity  of  such  estimates  by  com- 
paring them  with  actual  measurement.  On  sev- 
eral occasions  this  has  been  done  for  the  trait 
Intelligence,  a  trait  on  which  judges  are  likely 
to  agree  relatively  closely,  in  comparison  with 
other  traits.  Thus  the  writer  has  elsewhere  re- 
ported the  correlation  of  the  estimates  of  intelli- 
gence by  associates  with  ability  in  intelligence 
tests.  Lindsay  has  recently  reported  the  correla- 
tion, with  intelligence  tests,  of  estimates  of  chil- 
dren's native  ability  given  by  teachers  who  had 
been  with  them  in  the  classroom  for  not  less  than 


98       JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTEE 

one  month.    The  results  of  these  various  studies 
are  summarized  in  the  following  table : 

Showing  correlation  with  intelligence 
measurements  of: 

a.  Combhied  estimates,  by  twenty-four  friends,  of 

the  intelligence  of  twenty-five  college  juniors     .70 

b.  Combined  estimates,  by  twenty-four  friends,  of 

the  intelligence  of  twenty-five  college  seniors     .53 

c.  Combined  estimates,  by  five  teachers,  of  the  intel- 

ligence of  nineteen  children  in  a  tenth  grade 
history  class  ..,.,. 52 

Such  correlations  show  that  combined  judg- 
ments do  tend  very  definitely,  but  far  from  per- 
fectly, to  agree  with  the  results  disclosed  by  men- 
tal measurement.  But  too  much  should  not  be 
made  of  this  point,  since  many  tests  have  been 
selected  as  measures  of  intelligence  by  virtue  of 
their  correlation  with  such  estimates. 

Even  if  our  examination  of  judgment  tendencies 
should  close  at  this  point,  the  results  would  have 
an  important  practical  bearing.  But  there  is  more 
to  be  said,  especially  with  respect  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  traditional  methods.  One  source  of 
disagreement  in  the  judgments  of  associates  is  in 
the  indefiniteness  or  ambiguity  of  the  terms  used 
to    designate    the    character    traits.      Different 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  99 

judges,  using  the  same  term,  may  have  in  mind 
not  entirely  the  same  aspects  of  conduct.  Again, 
different  judges,  using  terms  which  to  the  reader 
are  apparently  quite  unrelated,  may  have  in  mind 
much  the  same  concrete  conduct.  The  ambiguity 
of  meanings  is  thus  one  source  of  disagreement 
or  equivocation  in  testimonials. 

Another  source  of  testimonial  invalidity  is  the 
lack  of  uniform  standards  and  terms  of  report. 
*'Very  efificienf  may  mean  in  one  letter  ^*  excep- 
tionally able. ' '  In  the  language  of  another  judge 
**very  efficient '*  may  mean  only  '* satisfactory.'' 
** Clearness''  may  mean  **rare  lucidity"  to  one 
judge,  and  only  *  intelligibility"  to  another.  Even 
pseudo-quantitative  statements,  such  as  **70  per 
cent  intelligence"  may  mean  **more  than  average 
competence"  or  may  mean  **feeble  mindedness  in- 
dicating institutional  care,"  depending  on  the 
speech  habits  of  the  judge.  Thus  a  grade  of  70 
per  cent  in  school  work  is  a  fair  passing  mark. 
But  an  intelligence  quotient  of  70  per  cent  is  sug- 
gestive of  mental  deficiency  to  the  school  psychol- 
ogist. Descriptive  adjectives  and  pseudo-quan- 
titative scores  are  equally  subversive  of  testi- 
monial validity. 


100      JUDGING  HU]\IAN  CHARACTER 

The  Elimination  of  Variability 

In  the  case  histories  of  patients  with  nervous 
and  mental  complaints,  undertaken  by  psychia- 
trists, the  inadequacy  of  descriptive  terms  has 
often  been  realized.  Here  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  delineate  as  clearly  as  possible  the  antecedent 
personality  of  the  patient,  and  to  record,  as  fully 
as  may  be,  his  character  and  conduct  at  the  time 
of  examination.  Such  case  histories  are  often  re- 
ferred to  by  those  not  present  at  the  examination, 
or  are  used  for  comparative  purposes  in  determin- 
ing the  patient's  progress,  or  in  the  comparative 
studies  of  individuals.  In  traditional  forms  these 
records  tended  easily  to  become  lists  of  descriptive 
adjectives,  expressing  not  the  patient's  conduct, 
but  instead  the  examiner's  interpretation  or  classi- 
fication of  his  acts.  Such  terms  as  ''depressed," 
''poor  memory,"  "flighty  attention,"  "excessive 
worry,"  "over  activity,"  "excitement,"  "defec- 
tive judgment,"  "inadequate  perception,"  and  so 
on,  obviously  do  little  toward  fixing  the  picture 
for  future  reference.  Nor  do  such  terms  convey 
to  others  any  precise  notion  of  the  patient's  be- 
havior or  condition. 

In  this  field,  therefore,  it  has  been  urged  that 


EREOR  AND  COREfiCTlON  IGl 

the  examiner  refrain  from  descriptive  adjectives 
and  record  instead  the  actual  things  that  the  pa- 
tient did,  quote  precisely  his  verbal  statements, 
give  the  questions  asked  or  tests  administered 
with  the  actual  replies  or  reactions  given.  This 
substitution  of  narrative  and  description  for  in- 
ference and  personal  interpretation  tends  to  eli- 
minate the  errors  of  subjective  opinion  and  to 
communicate  the  picture  undistorted  by  the  idio- 
syncrasies of  particular  beliefs,  theories,  or  vocab- 
ularies. Until  psychiatry  can  use  methods  of 
measurement  instead  of  personal  reports,  it  is  in 
some  such  way  that  the  errors  due  to  ambiguous 
terms  and  variable  standards  must  be  minimized. 
Various  methods  have  been  suggested  for  the 
elimination  of  these  two  sources  of  misunder- 
standing. Tndefiniteness  of  trait-terms  may  be 
remedied,  for  example,  by  presenting,  instead  of 
the  single  term,  a  group  of  terms  conceived  to  be 
related  or  sjoionymous  or  approximately  equiva- 
lent. But  this  practice  may  invite  only  etymolo- 
gical doubts  or  disputes  concerning  the  suggested 
equivalence  and  may  otherwise  distract  the  judge. 
A  more  useful  procedure  in  practice  has  been 
found  to  be  the  narration  of  instances  and  con- 


1G2      JUDGING  HUIMAN  CHARACTER 

Crete  acts,  or  the  inclusion  of  a  brief  explanatory- 
sentence,  stating  more  explicitly  the  meaning  to 
be  given  the  term. 

Consistency  in  the  terms  of  report  has  been 
sought  in  several  ways.  A  simple  method  is  to 
substitute  for  adjectives  and  pei  cent  or  letter 
grades,  a  statement  of  the  position  or  rank  of  the 
individual  among  a  group  of  his  general  class,  in 
the  trait  in  question.  Conventionally  a  group  of 
100  persons  serves  as  a  background  for  the  loca- 
tion of  the  individual.  Thus  instead  of  describing 
an  employee's  *^ integrity''  (when  this  is  clearly 
defined),  as  *'poor"  or  as  '^D,"  or  as  **60  per 
cent"  (implying  in  some  minds,  failure),  it  may 
be  said  of  him  that  he  is  ^^lOth  in  rank"  among 
a  hundred  men  of  his  class.  This  is  intended  to 
mean  that  only  nine  men  in  such  a  group  of  em- 
ployees would  have  less  *  integrity,"  whereas 
ninety  would  excel  him  in  that  respect. 

Such  a  characterization  does  not  pretend  to  be 
quantitative;  it  does  not  presume  to  show  **how 
much"  integrity  a  man  has,  but  rather  ** where 
he  stands"  in  this  trait.  Justifiable  as  this  tech- 
nique is  on  psychological  grounds,  it  does  not  work 
well  in  practice,  in  part  perhaps  because  it  does 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  103 

violence  to  the  more  familiar  use  of  numbers  as 
signs  of  amounts.  Perhaps  the  main  difficulty, 
however,  has  been  simply  that  of  making  practical 
use  of  any  procedure  before  it  is  widely  adopted 
and  conventionalized. 

Rating  Scales 

Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  introduce  con- 
crete scales  or  *' man-to-man '^  scales  for  each  trait, 
each  step  on  the  scale  being  represented  by  some 
actual  person  known  to  the  judge.  Thus  the  judge, 
before  characterizing  the  candidate  in  *  integrity  ** 
may  be  requested  to  construct  a  hierarchy  of  real 
people  he  has  known.  Mr.  A  is  to  be  the  most 
nearly  perfect  specimen  of  the  trait  that  the  judge 
has  ever  met.  Mr.  E  is  to  be  the  acquaintance  in 
whom  the  trait  is  most  conspicuously  weak.  Mr. 
C  is  to  stand  half-way  between  A  and  E;  Mr.  B 
midway  between  A  and  C ;  and  Mr.  D  midway  be- 
tween C  and  E.  Thereupon  Mr.  X  is  to  be  graded 
for  *4ntegrity'^  by  locating  him  on  this  concrete 
rating  scale.  In  more  elaborate  forms,  weighted 
numerical  scores  may  be  attached  to  these  posi- 
tions in  various  traits,  according  to  the  importance 
of  the  trait,  in  the  attempt  to  provide  for  the 
summation  of  different  traits  into  some  total  score. 


104      JUDGING  HUjMAN  CHARACTER 

Of  course  an  independent  scale  must  be  con- 
structed for  each  trait  that  is  judged.  One  of 
these  forms,  devised  by  Prof.  W.  D.  Scott,  and 
developed  by  the  Committee  on  Classification  of 
Personnel  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  is  now  widely  known 
as  the  *' Officers  Rating  Scale. ^'^ 

Such  procedure  undoubtedly  has  many  good 
points.  If  faithfully  executed  it  may  produce 
more  consistent  ratings,  both  from  different 
judges  and  in  different  cases  from  the  same  judge. 
But  it  presupposes  a  certain  industry  and  a  cer- 
tain fidelity  to  the  principle  of  the  method,  both 
of  which  actual  judges  seem  inclined  to  avoid. 
Thus  they  tend  to  assign  the  numbers,  letters,  or 
other  symbols  directly,  without  actual  production 
of  and  consultation  with  the  various  concrete 
scales  which  the  method  requires.  What  was  in 
intent  a  very  rough  method  of  ranking  thus  de- 
generates into  the  more  conventional  and  labor- 
saving  use  of  mere  descriptive  terms  or  their  sym- 
bolic equivalents. 


1  A  full  description  of  the  derivation  and  use  of  this  rating  scale 
is  to  be  found  in  the  second  volume  of  The  Personnel  System  of  the 
Uvited  States  Army,  published  by  the  Government  Printing 
Office.  A  critical  examination  of  the  validity  of  ratings  made  with 
the  aid  of  this  and  similar  scales  is  reported  by  Rugg  {Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  November,  1921  to  February,  1&22). 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  105 

A  compromise  between  the  demands  of  con- 
crete rating  and  the  laziness  or  hastiness  of  judges 
is  to  be  found  in  various  graphic  devices.  Thus 
a  line  drawn  opposite  a  trait  on  the  report  sheet 
may  indicate  the  stretch  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  specimen  in  the  trait.  By  simply  put- 
ting a  mark  on  the  line  at  the  appropriate  place 
the  judge  may  indicate  his  estimate  of  the  can- 
didate's position  in  this  series.  More  elaborate 
adaptations  of  this  simple  device  may  indicate  the 
frequency  with  which  the  various  degrees  of  the 
trait  are  likely  to  occur,  thus  roughly  approach- 
ing the  method  of  percentile  ranking.  The  graphic 
rating  device  seems  to  provoke  less  personal  re- 
sistance than  do  the  other  methods,  and  to  require 
less  explanation  and  time.  If  the  report  sheet  is 
well  organized,  the  graphic  rating  device  appeals 
to  many  as  an  interesting  indoor  sport.  It  spares 
the  tedious  vocabulary  of  the  conventional  letter 
of  appraisal,  expedites  correspondence,  and  pulls 
a  higher  percentage  of  returns.  A  sample  report 
sheet  based  on  these  principles  is  here  presented, 
to  be  used  in  making  inquiry  of  previous  employ- 
ers or  other  acquaintances,  concerning  a  candi- 
date for  employment  as  a  domestic  worker. 


106      JUDGING  HU]\1AN  CHARACTER 


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- 

Skill  in  Cooking 

Knowledge  of  processes,  vari- 
ety and  tastiness  of  products. 

Skill  in  Serving  Meals 

Knowledge   of   customs,   dex- 
terity, promptness  and  speed. 

Skill  in  Laundry  Work 
Strength  and  quickness,  qual- 
ity and  carefulness  of  wo^. 

Neatness  and  Cleanliness 
As    to    personal   appearance, 
care  of  premises  and  utensils. 

ERROR  AND  CORRECTION 


107 


Is 

- 

55 

1:9 

General  Health 

Robustness,  freedom  from  in- 
capacitating illness  and  phys- 
ical handicaps. 

Energy  and  Efficiency 

Confidence  in  handling  work, 
promptness  and  system,  reli- 
ability in  emergencies. 

Personal  Integrity 

Honesty,  truthfulness,  sobri- 
ety,  general   level   of   moral 
conduct. 

Temperament 

Cheerfulness,  courtesy,  coop- 
erativeness,  freedom  from 
temper,  irritability,  loquacity. 

Loyalty 

Fidelity  to  duty,  care  of  em- 
ployer's interests,  interest  and 
pride  in  work. 

e 
a 

a 

s 


n 


.S  ^  ^ 

eg  ^  •*» 


108     JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 


A  Model  Inquiby  Form 
The  advantages  of  such  a  form  are  obvious, 
once  it  is  prepared.  Only  strictly  relevant  traits 
are  included,  these  being  known  from  a  previous 
analysis  of  the  traits  of  successful  workers.  Each 
trait  is  briefly  but  clearly  defined.  The  number 
of  traits  included  is  small,  and  the  graphic  method 
of  rating,  aided  by  the  suggested  division  of  all 
such  candidates  into  five  groups  according  to 
merit,  makes  it  a  very  simple  matter  to  make  a 
systematic  record  of  the  judge  ^s  impressions. 
Three  groups  of  traits  are  distinguished.  The 
first  three  on  the  form  belong  to  the  ** objective'* 
group;  the  last  three  belong  to  the  social  or  ** sub- 
jective'* group;  the  middle  three  traits  stand  mid- 
way between  these  objective  and  subjective  traits. 
The  A,  B,  and  C  traits  may  thus  be  independently 
evaluated,  although  no  indication  is  given  to  the 
judge  that  his  reports  on  some  traits  are  consid- 
ered less  reliable  than  his  reports  on  others.  Op- 
portunity is  given  to  report  specific  incidents,  acts, 
and  observations. 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  109 

Suggested  Impkovements 

We  have,  then,  numerous  improvements  to  sug- 
gest in  connection  with  the  traditional  appraisal 
by  associates.  When  a  general  and  informal  let- 
ter is  called  for,  it  should  be  suggested  that  the 
letter  contain,  where  possible,  concrete  accounts 
of  acts  or  attitudes,  rather  than  merely  an  array 
of  descriptive  adjectives.  It  is,  however,  easier 
for  the  initiated  to  write  such  letters  than  it  is  to 
secure  them  from  others,  who  may  neither  appre- 
ciate the  principles  involved  nor  find  the  time  and 
convenience  for  adherence  to  them.  In  general, 
therefore,  it  is  better  to  provide  the  reporter  with 
a  standard  report  sheet  or  testimonial  form.  On 
this  form  should  occur  a  limited  number  of  defi- 
nitely relevant  trait-terms,  succinctly  defined  or 
illustrated.  The  traits  should  be  selected  with 
reference  to  their  position  in  the  local  hierarchy 
of  validity.  Objective,  ambiguous,  and  subjective 
traits  (the  A,  B,  and  C  groups  of  the  preceding 
sections)  may  all  be  included,  but  they  should  be 
segregated  for  readier  evaluation  of  the  returns. 

A  graphic  mode  of  record  or  some  similar  me- 
chanical or  checking  scheme  should  be  used,  which 
eliminates  the  necessity  of  verbal  ingenuity  and 


110      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

decisions  of  choice  on  the  part  of  the  judge,  who 
can  thus  devote  his  whole  attention  to  the  task  of 
appraisal.  Enclosed  with  a  stamped  and  ad- 
dressed return  envelope,  such  an  invitation  to 
judge  one's  fellow  men  is  calculated  to  promote 
both  the  peace  of  the  reporter  and  the  validity  of 
the  report.  But  the  validity  of  the  ratings  is 
subject  to  many  qualifications,  even  under  the  best 
of  intentions ;  for  this  reason  it  is  desirable,  wher- 
ever possible,  to  secure  a  record  of  the  actual  facts 
on  the  basis  of  which  the  judgment  is  passed,  as 
well  as  the  statement  of  the  verdict  itself.  Since 
most  of  our  judgments  of  associates  are  based  on 
the  summation  of  numerous  minor  impressions,  it 
is  only  in  special  instances  that  the  concrete  data 
of  such  judgments  will  be  available. 

The  peace  of  the  reporter  is  only  an  irrelevant 
gain  unless  the  validity  of  his  report  is  sufficient 
to  give  it  reliable  accuracy.  That  such  reliability 
is  not  attained,  even  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  that  are  practicably  possible,  is  shown 
by  Rugg's  investigation  of  the  accuracy  of  various 
rating  scale  methods.  After  a  study  of  many 
thousands  of  ratings,  by  various  methods,  espe- 
cially in  educational  and  military  institutions,  this 
investigator  concludes  that,  for  such  purposes 


ERROR  AND  CORRECTION  111 

**The  point  cannot  be  made  too  emphatically  that 
we  should  discard  these  loose  methods  of  rating 
once  and  for  all.  We  cannot  justify  wasting  the 
time  of  our  school  administrators  and  deluding 
our  teachers  with  fictitious  'ratings'  and 
*marks.'  Even  on  one  of  the  so-called  'stand- 
ardized' point  rating  schemes  a  single  rating  has 
little  or  no  scientific  validity."  The  only  circum- 
stances in  which  Rugg  reports  such  ratings  to  be 
sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  uses  in  educa- 
cation,  for  example,  involve  the  following  rigor- 
ous requirements.  The  final  rating  used  must  be 
the  average  of  at  least  three  independent  ratings, 
made  by  individuals  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  candidate,  on  comparable  and  equivalent 
scales  as  objective  in  character  as  those  of  the 
man-to-man  comparison  variety,  when  these  have 
been  formulated  in  conferences  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  one  skilled  in  such  technique.  The  impos- 
sibility of  even  approaching  such  conditions  in 
most  practical  situations  is  of  course  obvious. 
iWe  may,  therefore,  profitably  consider,  as  our 
next  topic,  the  possibility  of  developing  more  ob- 
jective methods  of  identifying  and  measuring 
human  traits. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE 

Even  when  trait  terms  have  been  clearly  de- 
fined, there  is  no  guaranty  that  a  list  of  such 
terms  represents  distinctive  character  elements. 
** Integrity"  for  example  may  be  a  complex  prod- 
uct or  resultant  of  the  organization  of  several  fea- 
tures of  the  mental  structure,  just  as  water  is  a 
product  of  elements  which  might  combine  with 
each  other  or  with  other  elements  in  numerous 
diverse  ways.  Character  terms,  such  as  those  of 
daily  life,  represent  effects  produced  rather  than 
psychological  functions  or  elements  of  personal- 
ity. Scientific  attempts  to  secure  more  accurate 
pictures  of  the  mental  pattern  itself  proceed  by 
some  method  of  mental  measurement.  Measure- 
ment begins  by  devising  tests.  A  test  is  a  stand- 
ard situation  which  is  calculated  to  provoke  a 
response  that  can  be  quantitatively  or  qualita- 
tively evaluated.  In  a  sense  the  writing  of  an 
application  and  the  ordeal  of  the  interview  are 
tests.    But  they  occur  under  conditions  that  are 

112 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  113 

not  controlled  and  yield  results  not  readily  cap- 
able of  accurate  evaluation. 

The  test  with  which  measurement  begins  is  pre- 
ferably a  very  restricted  task  or  situation  which 
can  be  readily  repeated,  controlled,  scored,  and 
evaluated.  Measurement  is  facilitated  if  the  task 
involves  but  few  types  of  material,  few  processes 
or  functions  or  variables,  definite  and  identifiable 
capacities,  interests,  feelings.  Progress  consists 
in  establishing,  for  such  identifiable  details  of 
mental  make-up,  significant  and  specific  tests. 
Any  conceivable  task,  performance  or  bit  of  con- 
duct may  be  made  to  constitute  a  test,  if  it  goes 
through  the  necessary  and  somewhat  complicated 
preliminary  stages.  Until  these  and  various  sub- 
sequent stages  have  been  completed,  the  task  does 
not  constitute  a  measure  of  competence  or  charac- 
ter. To  describe  some  of  these  stages  in  the  devel- 
opment of  tasks  into  tests  and  tests  into  measures, 
for  the  appraisal  of  human  traits,  is  the  purpose 
of  the  present  chapter. 

Tests  and  Measurements 

Any  situation  or  performance  may  become  the 
material  of  a  test.  Sharpening  a  lead  pencil,  de- 
fining words,  threading  a  needle,  speed  of  read- 


114      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

ing,  adjusting  a  carburetor,  filing  a  saw,  accu- 
racy of  spelling,  appreciation  of  jokes,  hitting  a 
target,  preference  of  pictures,  memorizing  a  poem, 
drawing  a  sketch,  milking  a  cow,  detecting  logical 
fallacies,  are  more  or  less  miscellaneous  and  tri- 
vial examples.  As  enumerated,  they  are  merely 
feats,  reactions,  feelings.  They  become  tests  when 
standard  materials  are  prescribed,  standardized 
technique  adopted,  standard  instructions  formu- 
lated and  used,  standard  scoring  methods  devised. 
The  tests  become  instruments  of  measurement 
when,  in  addition  to  the  satisfaction  of  these  re- 
quirements, the  scores  can  be  translated  in  terms 
of  an  authentic  background,  scale,  or  context  of 
scores,  and  interpreted  as  symptoms  of  present 
status  or  signs  of  future  conduct. 

For  example,  for  the  feat  ** filing  a  saw''  to  be- 
come a  test  and  then  to  evolve  into  a  measure, 
first  (materials)  the  size,  condition  and  quality  of 
saw,  file  and  vise  must  be  specified.  Next  (tech- 
nic)  the  position  of  the  worker,  the  illumina- 
tion, and  other  details  of  procedure  and  setting 
must  be  indicated.  Third  (instructions)  the  same 
directions  must  be  given  to  each  subject  and  these 
directions  should  be  understood.  Fourth  (scor- 
ing) the  effectiveness  or  quality  of  the  act  must 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  115 

be  stated  in  prescribed  terms  and  the  units  that 
go  to  make  up  the  score  must  be  agreed  upon. 

Suppose  all  these  conditions  to  have  been  ob- 
served, and  an  unpracticed  candidate  found  to  be 
able  to  file  the  standard  saw,  with  the  standard 
tools,  by  the  standard  method,  under  the  stand- 
ard directions,  with  a  standard  quality  of  execu- 
tion, in  thirty  minutes.  Thirty  minutes  is  then 
the  score  in  the  test.  But  it  is  a  *^raw  score,''  and 
in  itself  relatively  meaningless,  hence  not  a  meas- 
ure of  anything  except  the  actual  duration  of  the 
act  itself.  But  suppose  that  by  extended  use  of 
this  saw-filing  test  it  is  found  that  unpracticed 
subjects,  who  do  this  feat  with  this  score,  are 
those  who,  having  a  moderate  native  interest  in 
tools,  are  sufficiently  dexterous  to  attain  the 
status  of  a  journeyman  carpenter  and  no  more. 
The  test  score  can  now  be  translated  into  a  meas- 
ure, in  terms  of  skill  level  attainable,  of  the  sub- 
ject's  ** carpentering  ability."  This  is  the  essen- 
tial process  involved  in  all  scientific  character  an- 
alysis. A  test  is  found  which  serves  as  a  symp- 
tom of  more  extended  functions  or  prospects  than 
are  involved  in  the  task  itself.  The  inference 
from  the  detail  to  the  larger  pattern  is  thus  more 


116      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

than  a  mere  judgment,  in  so  far  as  it  rests  on  a 
foundation  of  established  data. 

Principles  of  Construction 

The  test  act  itself  may  be  planned  or  standard- 
ized on  the  basis  of  one  of  several  principles.  In 
the  case  just  described  a  Standard  Task  was  set, 
the  completion  of  which  is  necessary  before  the 
score  (time  required)  can  be  determined.  An- 
other method  uses  Homogeneous  Material  as  its 
basis.  The  score  is  then  the  number  of  items  or 
task  units  acceptably  accomplished  in  a  fixed  time. 
Thus  in  the  saw-filing  test,  the  number  of  teeth 
filed  in  ten  minutes  might  constitute  the  score. 
The  method  of  Graded  Tasks  is  also  often  em- 
ployed. Tasks  of  the  same  nature,  arranged  in 
a  series  of  steps  of  increasing  difficulty,  comprise 
such  a  scale.  The  score  is  then  the  distance  along 
the  scale  which  the  subject ^s  competence  will 
carry  him,  either  in  a  fixed  time  or  without  time 
limit.  A  method  of  Miscellaneous  Gradations  also 
presents  a  series  scaled  in  difficulty,  the  steps, 
however,  being  represented  by  varied  kinds  of 
tasks  or  materials.  Another  common  principle  is 
based  on  Response  Values.    The  stimuli  or  situa- 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE   117 

tions  are  the  same  for  all  candidates,  but  achieve- 
ment is  measured  in  terms  of  the  quality  of  the 
reactions  made. 

Readers  familiar  with  the  names  of  common 
tests  now  widely  used  will  recognize  the  Form 
Board  and  the  Puzzle  Box  as  cases  of  the  method 
of  Standard  Task,  the  Substitution  and  Cancella- 
tion tests  as  examples  of  Homogeneous  Materials, 
the  Stenquist  Construction  test  and  most  Vocab- 
ulary tests  as  instances  of  Graded  Tasks.  Mis- 
cellaneous Gradations  are  illustrated  by  the  Binet- 
Simon  scale  and  its  various  adaptations  and  re- 
visions. The  principle  of  Response  Values  is  used 
in  the  Kent-Rosanoff  test  for  Community  of  Ideas. 

Principles  of  Expression 

Along  with  the  standard  modes  of  choosing  acts, 
tasks,  or  situations,  should  also  be  considered  the 
various  standard  methods  of  expressing  the  meas- 
ure of  achievement  or  response.  Five  chief 
methods  are  in  common  use.  In  some  cases  the 
raw  scores  or  Original  Units  are  used  in  express- 
ing the  result,  as  in  ordinary  athletic  scores  and 
in  the  determination  of  *^  critical  scores, '^  failure 
to  attain  which  means  rejection.  Or  these  raw 
scores  may  be  translated  into  Percentile  Units, 


118      JUDGING  HUIVIAN  CHARACTER 

in  which  the  standing  or  rank  in  a  representative 
group  of  one  hundred  candidates  becomes  the  final 
expression.  Related  to  this  is  the  use  of  Distrihu- 
tion  Units,  in  which  the  raw  scores  are  divided  by 
some  standard  measure  of  the  variability  of  the 
representative  group  in  the  feat  in  question.  Such 
a  measure  shows  the  individual's  position  with 
respect  to  the  average  of  the  representative  group. 
The  principle  of  Developmental  Units,  such  as  age 
units,  translates  the  raw  scores  into  terms  of  the 
average  age  of  immature  individuals  who  attain 
this  as  their  characteristic  score.  Such  a  measure 
states  the  ** mental  age''  or  the  ^^ maturity"  of  the 
candidate  in  the  trait  in  question.  The  use  of 
skill  levels  also  resembles  that  of  Developmental 
Units.  Finally,  Absolute  Units  may  be  devised, 
as  when  the  accomplishment  is  shown  to  be  a  given 
number  of  equally  perceptible  steps  superior  to 
a  zero  accomplishment. 

Original  Units  have  little  place  in  mental  meas- 
urement. Until  placed  in  a  context  of  other  scores 
they  have  little  or  no  meaning,  and  they  cannot 
under  most  circumstances  be  combined  nor  di- 
rectly compared  with  scores  from  other  tests. 
Thus  measures  of  height  and  weight,  in  terms  of 
inches  and  pounds,  can  neither  be  compared  nor 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  119 

combined  significantly.  But  if  expressed  in  Per- 
centile Units,  Distribution  Units,  or  Develop- 
mental Units,  such  comparisons  and  combinations 
are  possible.  By  such  methods,  for  example,  it 
may  be  discovered  that  a  given  individual  is 
**more  superior"  in  one  trait  than  in  another. 
Measures  of  many  traits  in  such  comparable  terms 
make  possible  the  graphic  portrayal  of  the  **  pro- 
file" or  ^  ^  psychograph "  of  the  candidate  in  the 
array  of  tests  or  traits  considered. 

Illustrative  Test  Procedures 

The  following  selections  of  tests  that  are  easily 
described  will  serve  to  illustrate  concretely  these 
various  methods  of  standardizing  materials  and 
of  expressing  results: 

Word  Building. — Consider  the  letters  A,  E,  I,  R,  L,  P. 

You  can  make  words  of  those  letters.  Thus  you  can  say 
E-A-R  spells  a  word.  But  you  cannot  make  R-A-T 
because  there  is  uo  T  there,  nor  can  you  make  P-I-L-L 
for  there  is  only  one  L.  Make  as  many  words  as  you  can 
and  write  them  down.  Do  not  use  any  letter  that  is  not 
there,  and  do  not  use  the  same  letter  more  than  once  in 
the  same  word.  (The  score  is  the  number  of  words  you 
can  make  in  five  minutes,  counting  all  words  correctly 
spelled,  excluding  obsolete  and  foreign  words,  and  abbre- 
viations.    About  60  words  are  possible.) 


120      JUDGING  HmiAN  CHARACTER 

If  we  know  how  many  words  can  be  made  by 
average  children  of  various  ages  we  can  state  the 
raw  score  in  terms  of  Developmental  Units.  Thus 
a  score  of  13  words  means  a  mental  age  of  15 
years  in  this  test,  since  the  average  fifteen-year- 
old  can  make  13  words  in  the  time  allowed.  Or, 
if  the  candidate  is  a  college  freshman,  and  three 
minutes  are  allowed  instead  of  five,  a  score  of  13 
words  locates  the  candidate  as  one  probable  error 
(1  P.E.)  below  the  average  college  freshman.  The 
average  freshman  score  is  16  words  and  the  prob- 
able error  (representing  the  variability  of  100 
freshmen  about  this  average)  is  3  words.  Fur- 
ther, we  can  say  that  a  candidate  standing  at  this 
point  in  the  distribution  of  ability  is  at  the  25- 
percentile,  or  is  number  25  or  at  rank  25  in  a  rep- 
resentative group  of  100  freshmen,  when  they  are 
arranged  in  order  of  competence  in  this  test,  from 
poorest  to  best.  In  this  test,  then,  we  have  illus- 
trated the  three  principal  methods  of  expressing 
the  measure  (Developmental,  Distribution,  and 
Percentile  Units). 

We  have  still  to  illustrate  the  other  methods  of 
determining  the  materials.  In  a  certain  sense  we 
can  use  the  foregoing  test  to  illustrate  the  method 
of  Homogeneous  Materials.    If  we  consider  that 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE   121 

each  of  the  words  in  the  complete  list  represents 
an  equally  valuable  item,  as  is  actually  the  case 
in  assigning  the  score,  these  words  then  repre- 
sent homogeneous  items  which  the  candidate  has 
to  ^ '  think  of. ' '  The  number  of  these  homogeneous 
tasks  he  can  ** handle'*  in  the  time  set,  thus  consti- 
tutes his  score.  A  clear  example  is  afforded  by  the 
following  section  of  a  familiar  ^^substitution'* 
test.  The  key  at  the  top  indicates  a  number  as 
belonging  to  each  of  the  various  geometrical 
forms.  The  task  consists  in  writing  in  each  of  the 
forms  below,  with  pencil,  the  number  which  be- 
longs to  each,  taking  each  form  in  turn  across  the 
page,  and  consulting  the  key  as  often  as  necessary. 
Here  the  various  forms  and  the  task  connected 
with  them,  constitute  homogeneous  items  in  the 
task.  The  raw  score  may  be  translated,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  word  building  test,  into  terms  of  De- 
velopmental Units,  Distribution  Units,  or  Percen- 
tile Rank. 

The  method  of  Standard  Task  is  conveniently 
illustrated  by  the  following  assignment.  There 
is  another  common  English  word,  and  only  one, 
that  can  be  made  of  the  letters  contained  in  the 
word  CHESTY.  What  is  that  other  word?  Here 
the  task  is  unequivocally  specified.    The  response 


■&  ©  <^ 

■^   Q  133 


<1 

d  <    0 

«= 

E 

<^  ©   ^  j 

© 

^  is^  s  : 

2 

^ 

^  0  -^ 

y  <^  s 

<^  ^  © 

©  0  <^ 

MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  123 

will  be  of  the  *  *  all  or  none ' '  type,  since  degrees  of 
success  are  not  possible,  either  one  succeeds  or 
fails.  The  score  will  be  the  time  required  to  dis- 
cover the  correct  reply,  or  else  it  will  be  simply 
**failure." 

The  method  of  Graded  Tasks  is  neatly  illus- 
trated in  a  rough  form  by  the  following  *^  re-ar- 
rangement" test.  Each  set  of  letters,  when  prop- 
erly re-arranged,  spells  the  name  of  a  familiar 
animal.  The  tasks  are  similar  in  each  case,  but 
their  relative  difficulty  has  been  determined  by 
trial  on  numbers  of  adults,  and  the  words  have 
been  arranged  in  order  of  difficulty.     This  is  a 

Rearrange  the  Letters  to  Make  Namfj;  op  Animals 


1.  snkuk 

2.  niol 

3.  rede 

4.  tgrei 

5.  barze 

6.  selwae 


7.  bnsio 

8.  leum 

9.  seomu 

10.  shroe 

11.  goroauka 

12.  delopra 


i^' 


13.  hapletne     1 19.  rotligala  ^  ^  aju.. 
14.kmy^n     l^QAa^glvoi  cfyi^' 

15.  duorin     ^     21.  tinram 

16.  ycteo^N^^^,, f'22.  lettru  '^^  ^'         ^. 

17.  Iqriurse        23.  clreoicdo  tA^'^'^^ 


** rough'*  illustration,   because  it  is  not  known 
whether  or  not  the  steps  from  word  to  word  rep- 
resent equal  steps  in  *  ^  difficulty. ' ' 
For  exact  purposes  it  is  desirable  that  the  steps 


\X 


124      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

in  such  a  graded  scale  be  equal.  But  equality  may 
be  present  in  one  or  more  of  various  senses.  The 
advance  may  represent  a  step  in  felt  difficulty,  a 
step  in  the  frequency  of  solution,  in  the  average 
age  of  attainment,  in  the  time  required  to  accom- 
plish it,  etc.  In  any  given  case  the  nature  of  the 
criterion  of  advance  must  be  taken  into  account. 
The  following  test  illustrates  a  more  accurately 
graded  series  of  tasks  which  are  similar  in  general 
character.  The  steps  are  equal  in  the  sense  that 
the  average  time  required  for  each  item  in  the 
scale,  by  educated  adults,  is  in  each  case  except  the 
first  item  approximately  twenty-five  per  cent  (25 
per  cent)  more  than  the  time  required  for  the  item 
just  preceding  it  in  the  scale.  The  average  time 
required  for  each  item  by  a  group  of  college  stu- 
dents, expressed  in  fifth-seconds,  and  the  average 
deviations,  are  given  in  the  following  description 
of  the  test : 

Analogies  Test 

A  pair  of  words  is  given,  the  second  of  which  bears 
a  certain  relation  to  the  first.  Then  a  third  word  is 
given  in  a  separate  column.  You  are  to  give  a  fourth 
word,  which  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  third 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  125 

word,  as  that  in  which  the  second  word  stands  with 
respect  to  the  first  word.  Any  word  that  satisfies  the 
requirement  is  accepted  as  correct. 


First  Pair 


eagle 

multiplication . 

opera 

^oat 

gallops   

color  

cart 

eyes 

courage  

hand   


bird 

division 

hear 

water 

horse 

blue 

horse 

face 

cowardice 

fist 


Second  Pair 


shark  . . 
addition 
movie 

train 

bites   

tool 

automobile  . 

lake 

virtue   

nation 


k:^ 


Av.  Time  A.D. 

in  fifth  sec. 

8 

1.5 

10 

2.5 

12 

2.8 

15 

3.0 

19 

7.0 

24 

8.3 

•    29 

17.0 

37 

19.0 

47 

25.5 

60 

32.5 

The  Method  of  Miscellaneous  Gradations  is 
well  represented  by  the  following  section  of  the 
Stanford  Revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  intelligence 
scale.  At  each  age  level  (Developmental  Unit)  is 
placed  a  set  of  tasks,  which  although  they  vary 
considerably  in  their  apparent  character,  are  alike 
in  the  sense  that  the  ability  to  handle  them  in  the 
prescribed  fashion  and  with  the  prescribed  degree 
of  success  is  achieved  by  the  typical  child  of  that 
age  or  more,  but  not  by  the  typical  child  of  lower 
ages.  The  tasks  are  miscellaneous  but  gradation 
is  nevertheless  present. 


126      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

Year  III 

1.  "Show  me  your'^ :  nose eyes mouth .^ 

hair (3  of  4). 

2.  Names    key penny closed    knife ^.j 

watch pencil (3  of  5). 

3.  Three  objects  in  one  picture:  Dutch  Home 

Canoe  Post  Office 

4.  Gives  sex. 

5.  Gives  last  name. 

6.  Repeats  (1  of  3) :   (a)  I  have  a  little  dog;   (b)  The  dog 

runs  after  the  cat;  (c)  In  summer  the  sun  is  hot. 

Year  IV 
1.    Compares  lines  (3  of  3,  or  5  of  6). 


2.    Discriminates    (7    of   10) :    Circle square. 

triangle other  errors 


3.  Counts  4  pennies   (no  error). 

4.  Copies  square  (pencil,  1  of  3) :  a b c 

5.  Comprehends  (2  of  3) :    What  must  you  do  when  you  are 

(a)  sleepy.  (b)  cold.  (c)  hungry. 

6.  Repeats  (1  of  3) :  4739 2854 7261 

Year  V 


1.    Compares   weights    (2   of   3):   3—15 15—3, 

3—15 


2.    Colors  (no  error) :  red yellow blue. 

green 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  127 

3.  Aesthetic  comparison  (no  error) :  a b c 

4.  Definitions  (use  or  better,  4  of  6) : 

chair  doll 

horse  pencil 

fork  table 

5.  Patience  (2  of  3),  1  minute  each) :  a b c 


6.    Three  commissions.  Key  on  chair brings  box. 

shuts  door 


The  only  method  not  illustrated  in  the  foregoing 
account  is  that  of  Response  Values.  In  its  more 
common  form  the  value  of  the  response  is  deter- 
mined by  its  possession  of  some  quality.  The 
following  example  will  serve  to  illustrate  this 
method.  The  test  is  one  of  **free  association.'* 
The  words  in  the  first  column  serve  as  *  *  stimuli. ' ' 
They  are  read,  one  at  a  time,  and  the  candidate  is 
requested  to  respond  by  the  first  single  word  that 
** comes  to  his  mind''  upon  hearing  the  stimulus 
word.  Examination  of  1,000  people  shows  that 
for  each  stimulus  word  some  responses  are  ^^pre- 
ferred;'' that  is,  they  are  given  by  large  numbers 
of  people.  Responses  to  a  given  word  may  be 
graded  in  their  frequency,  commonness,  or  banal- 
ity, by  indicating  the  number  or  per  cent  of  peo- 
ple who  give  them.  The  candidate  may,  for  each 
word,  be  given  a  score  which  is  the  per  cent  of  peo- 


128      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

pie  who  give  the  same  response  that  he  does.  The 
average  of  his  scores  or  some  other  index  of  their 
tendency,  will  give  a  measure  of  his  ^*  community 
of  ideas."  The  quality  of  the  response,  or  its 
value,  here  consists  in  the  degree  to  which  it  rep- 
resents the  responses  of  others.  In  the  table  the 
words  in  the  first  column  are  the  stimulus  words. 
In  the  other  three  columns  are  given  the  three 
most  frequent  responses,  and  the  number  of  peo- 
ple who  give  them. 


Sample  Words  and  Partial  Results  from  the 
Kent-Rosanoff  Free  Association  Test 


Stimulus 

table 

dark    

music    

sickness    . . 

man 

deep    

soft 

eating:  .... 
mountain  . 
house    .... 


Three  Most  Frequent  Responses,  and  Their 

Absolute  Frequency  in  the  Test  of 

1,000  People 


chair  (267) 

light  (427) 

piano  (180) 

health  (142) 

woman  (394) 

shallow  (180) 

hard  (365) 

food  (170) 

high  (246) 

home  (103) 

wood  (76) 
night  (221) 
sound  (95) 
death  (115) 
male   (99) 
water  (134) 
pillow  (53) 
drinking  (166) 
hill  (184) 
building  (78) 


furniture  (75) 
black  (76) 
song  (68) 
doctor  (62) 
boy  (44) 
ocean  (93) 
easy  (34) 
bread  (46) 
valley  (90) 
barn  (74) 


The  method  of  Absolute  Units  may  be  readily 
illustrated  by  one  of  the  scales  now  in  common 
use  for  measuring  the  results  of  education.    Thus 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  129 

the  quality  of  the  candidate's  handwriting,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  its  general  ^  ^  excellence ' '  may- 
be measured.  A  sample  of  his  usual  handwriting 
is  secured.  As  the  result  of  preliminary  investi- 
gation, a  handwriting  scale  is  ready,  consisting 
of  specimens  of  the  penmanship  of  different  peo- 
ple. These  specimens  are  arranged  as  a  scale,  of 
such  a  sort  that  the  first  specimen  has  just  zero 
value,  inasmuch  as  it  cannot  possibly  be  read, 
although  in  its  general  appearance  it  suggests  an 
attempt  at  writing.  The  succeeding  specimens  of 
the  scale  represent  equal  distances  along  the  scale 
of  *  ^  excellence/ '  in  the  sense  that  these  advances 
are  equally  perceptible  or,  as  is  more  usual,  agreed 
upon  by  equal  numbers  of  judges,  that  is,  equally 
often  perceptible.  The  candidate's  handwriting 
may  be  placed  alongside  such  a  scale,  at  the  point 
where  its  quality  is  judged  to  equal  the  excellence 
of  the  scale  specimens.  The  score  given  it  is  then 
the  number  of  ^^ perception  steps"  by  which  it 
excels  the  zero  specimen.  Samples  of  such  scales 
can  be  found  in  many  of  the  manuals  on  educa- 
tional measurement.  They  are  too  elaborate  to 
reproduce  in  this  brief  survey  and  their  valid  use 
requires  expert  knowledge. 


130      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Primary  Meaning  of  Test  Records 

At  this  point  occasion  may  be  taken  to  point  out 
just  what  information  it  is  that  a  test  yields.  Pri- 
marily and  directly,  it  affords  a  measure  only"  of 
that  which  it  actually  measures.  Thus,  when  a 
specimen  of  handwriting  is  measured  on  the  hand- 
writing scale,  there  is  afforded  only  a  measure  of 
that  particular  specimen  of  handwriting,  not  of 
the  candidate 's  handwriting  ability.  If  the  speci- 
men was  written  in  excitement,  haste  or  fear,  it 
may  indicate  the  tendency  of  his  penmanship 
under  such  circumstances.  If  it  was  prepared  at 
a  given  speed,  the  measure  may  suggest  the  can- 
didate's general  tendency  when  writing  at  that 
speed.  If  it  was  prepared  on  a  moving  train,  its 
significance  is  again  limited.  The  point  of  these 
comments  is  in  general  that  the  immediate  meas- 
ure is  only  a  measure  of  the  immediate  product. 
Two  specimens  of  writing  may  be  thus  compared 
without  any  special  precautions,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  their  excellence  as  present  products.  But 
unless  all  other  conditions  of  performance,  such 
as  rate  of  writing,  controlling  purpose,  emo- 
tional condition,  degree  of  training,  and  so  on,  are 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE   131 

kept  constant  or  otherwise  accounted  for,  the  in- 
ference cannot  be  extended  from  the  actual  speci- 
men to  the  ability  of  the  candidate. 

Similarly,  ability  to  re-arrange  the  letters  to 
make  the  names  of  animals  constitutes,  directly, 
only  a  measure  of  that  actual  process.  It  is  an 
error  to  describe  the  test  as  one  of  imagination, 
invention,  intelligence,  proof-reading  ability,  in- 
terest in  verbal  matters,  or  anything  else,  until, 
by  a  further  process  of  inquiry  this  particular 
test  has  been  empirically  found  not  only  to  meas- 
ure what  it  does  directly  measure,  but  also  to  indi- 
cate whatever  more  general  facts  it  may  be  found 
to  signify.  Furthermore  it  is  not  even  a  direct 
measure  of  the  process  itself  unless  various  other 
factors,  such  as  time  allowed,  instructions  given, 
motivation,  and  other  variables  are  specified,  kept 
constant  or  otherwise  accounted  for.^ 

Choice  of  Tests 

The  manner  in  which  a  test  is  constructed  and 
in  which  its  results  are  capable  of  expression  may 
often  determine  its  suitability  for  a  given  purpose. 
Thus  the  method  of  Standard  Task  is  less  suit- 

»  Cf,  A.  I.  Gates,  "Experimental  Study  of  Reading  and  Reading 
Tests,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  September,  October  and 
November,  1921. 


132      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

able  for  group  procedure  than  are  the  methods  in 
which  a  fixed  time  limit  is  established  for  all  can- 
didates. The  method  of  Graded  Tasks  is  likely 
to  cover  a  shorter  range  of  capacity  than  some 
of  the  other  methods,  inasmuch  as  a  type  of  pro- 
cess or  material  sufficiently  difficult  for  the  higher 
degrees  of  ability  may  present  no  tasks  which  can 
be  accomplished  by  the  lower  degrees.  Or  con- 
versely, materials  and  processes  suitable  for  the 
lower  degrees  may  not  readily  afford  tasks  suf- 
ficiently difficult  to  enable  the  measurement  of  the 
more  able.  A  more  or  less  specific  trait,  such  as 
ability  to  spell,  may  best  be  measured  by  the 
method  of  Graded  Tasks,  whereas  for  the  meas- 
urement of  more  general  and  vaguely  defined 
traits,  such  as  mechanical  skill  or  intelligence. 
Miscellaneous  Gradations  may  be  more  readily 
prepared.  Other  illustrations  might  be  given,  but 
these  should  suffice  to  suggest  that  both  the  con- 
struction and  adoption  of  tests  for  definite  pur- 
poses call  for  a  background  of  information  and  a 
comprehension  of  technique  which  the  novice  is 
not  likely  to  possess. 

The  method  of  expressing  the  results  may  also 
condition  the  uses  to  which  a  test  may  be  put.  The 
principle  of  Developmental  Units,  illustrated  by 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  133 

the  use  of  mental  ages,  has  the  advantage  of  pic- 
turesqueness  and  concreteness,  because  of  the 
well-established  age  concept  in  other  connections. 
But  it  has  many  limitations  and  it  may  readily 
lead  the  novice  into  absurdities.  Thus  it  can 
only  be  applied  in  the  measurement  of  the  imma- 
ture and  of  the  inferior  adult,  since  standards 
based  on  the  principle  of  mental  age  commonly 
cease  at  points  ranging  from  eleven  to  sixteen 
years.  Moreover  it  is  only  by  a  kind  of  conven- 
tion or  on  the  basis  of  some  analogy  that  the  steps 
from  age  to  age  can  be  considered  units.  Devel- 
opmental units,  in  other  words,  are  not  likely  to 
be  units  in  any  other  sense.  To  have  the  capacity 
of  twelve  year  olds  in  one  test  may  mean  to  be  as 
good  as  the  average  adult.  In  another  test  twelve 
year  ability  may  mean  marked  deficiency.  There- 
fore psychographic  charts,  such  as  those  given  in 
the  last  chapter  of  this  book,  based  on  the  princi- 
ple of  Developmental  Units,  can  lend  themselves 
readily  to  misinterpretation. 

The  uses  of  Percentile  Units  and  Distribution 
Units  have  many  advantages.  In  the  first  place 
they  can  scarcely  be  used  without  being  under- 
stood, and  this  is  a  great  gain.  Further,  they  fit 
in  with  the  demands  of  various  statistical  pro- 


134      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

cedures,  without  which  mental  measurement  can- 
not progress.  Although  such  units  were  among 
the  first  emjjloyed  in  mental  measurement  their 
adoption  has  been  relatively  slow.  They  do  not 
make  a  strong  appeal  to  popular  fancy  and  their 
use  requires  a  certain  intelligence  and  technical 
knowledge.  These  methods  also  require  somewhat 
more  elaborate  preliminary  data  and  norms  than 
does,  for  example,  the  method  of  Developmental 
Units.  The  ability  of  a  stupid  adult  may  be  as- 
signed a  mental  age  equivalent,  if  norms  on  chil- 
dren only  are  available.  But  he  could  not  be  given 
a  percentile  or  distribution  rating  unless  norms 
on  representative  adults  were  also  available. 

Since  nearly  all  children  go  to  school  and  since 
tests  can  be  put  to  good  use  in  their  instruction, 
it  is  relatively  easy  to  secure  representative  norms 
up  to  about  twelve  years  of  age.  Beyond  that 
point  it  grows  increasingly  more  difficult  to  secure 
representative  data  on  the  basis  of  which  percen- 
tile or  distribution  ratings  can  be  assigned  to  the 
individual  chosen  at  random.  These  various 
points  in  connection  with  the  principles  of  con- 
struction and  expression  are  only  samples  of  the 
many  considerations  required  in  the  safe  and  prof- 
itable application  of  the  methods  of  mental  meas- 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  135 

urement.  The  reader  who  cannot  think  of  several 
others  is  only  on  the  threshold  of  a  complex  field 
of  technical  study.  Any  novice  can  use  a  yard 
stick,  but,  in  spite  of  a  fairly  widespread  miscon- 
ception to  the  contrary,  there  are  no  yard  sticks 
for  the  measurement  of  human  character. 

Individual,  and  Group  Methods 

From  the  point  of  view  of  economy  and  speed 
the  mental  examination  of  candidates  assembled 
in  groups  has  many  advantages.  On  the  other 
hand  greater  accuracy  and  flexibility,  increased 
reliability  and  fuller  knowledge  result  from  the 
independent  examination  of  each  individual. 
Many  tests  in  common  use  are  not  suitable  for 
group  procedure  since,  for  example,  they  may 
involve  somewhat  complicated  technique,  oral  re- 
sponses, elimination  of  error  through  refusal  to 
accept  inadequate  or  incorrect  replies,  scoring  in 
terms  of  time,  or  various  other  complications. 
Limitations  on  the  part  of  the  candidates  also  de- 
tract from  the  reliability  of  test  scores  secured  by 
the  group  method.  Although  success  or  high 
score  in  group  tests  may  usually  be  taken  as  an 
indication  of  competence,  failure  or  low  score  may 
result  from  one  or  more  of  a  number  of  factors. 


136      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Thus  illiteracy,  sensory  defect,  physical  impedi- 
ment, illness,  misunderstood  instructions,  in  the 
case  of  those  otherwise  competent,  may  produce 
inferior  performance.  In  any  given  circumstance 
it  is  useful  to  know  the  degree  to  which  group 
survey  scores  agree  with  results  from  individual 
examinations. 

Thus  in  one  case,  in  which  the  interest  lay  in  the 
measurement  of  intelligence,  both  group  survey 
methods  and  individual  examination  were  em- 
ployed on  a  group  of  about  one  hundred  candi- 
dates. The  differences  in  mental  age  as  deter- 
mined by  the  two  methods  were  then  computed, 
and  the  average  difference  was  found  to  be  1.3 
years.  Of  all  the  cases,  48  per  cent  showed  a 
difference  of  less  than  one  year.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  10  per  cent  of  the  cases  the  difference 
was  three  years  or  more.  In  79  per  cent  of  the 
cases  the  score  by  the  group  method  was  lower 
than  that  from  the  individual  examination,  and  on 
the  average  the  group  scores  were  about  one  year 
inferior  to  those  based  upon  individual  examina- 
tion. In  only  three  instances  did  individuals 
score  lower  in  the  individual  examination  by  as 
much  as  two  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  group  of  forty-seven  adults 


MEASURING  MENTAL  COMPETENCE  137 

who  had  failed  to  make  scorable  records  in  the 
group  test  were  individually  examined,  and  it 
was  found  that  75  per  cent  of  these  adults  were 
below  8.5  years  of  mental  age.  For  the  most  part, 
then,  those  who  completely  failed  in  the  group 
examination  were  actually  mental  defectives.  In 
general  such  results,  which  have  also  been  con- 
firmed by  other  investigators,  suggest  that  group 
methods  give  fairly  accurate  measures  of  the 
average  competence  of  the  group  as  a  whole,  and 
fairly  reliable  scores  for  the  competent  or  the 
superior  individuals  in  the  group.  But  low  scores 
in  group  examinations  cannot  be  taken  with 
assurance  to  imply  incompetence,  in  the  absence 
of  other  evidence. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  familiarize  him  with  the  many,  many 
hundreds  of  tests  of  human  aptitudes  and  char- 
acteristics now  employed  by  psychologists.  To 
master  all  these,  to  know  their  history,  their 
detailed  character  and  significance,  their  technic, 
their  uses  and  applications,  and  their  implications 
in  the  analysis  of  human  character,  has  in  recent 
years  become  a  professional  occupation,  similar 
to  surgery,  dentistry,  law,  and  engineering.  The 
materials  grow  daily  more  elaborate  and  the  field 


138      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

more  complex.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter  has 
been,  through  a  general  survey  of  the  main  prin- 
ciples, to  convey  a  rudimentary  notion  of  the 
nature  of  the  methods  of  construction  that  have 
emerged  in  the  development  of  this  field  up  to  the 
present  time. 


I 


CHAPTER  IX 

GENERAL  COMPETENCE  AND  SPECIAL 
APTITUDE 

Specialized  Traits 

The  foregoing  chapter  was  mainly  concerned 
with  the  description  and  illustration  of  some  of 
the  fundamental  concepts  and  technics  underlying 
the  development  of  tests  and  measures.  The 
problem  of  interpreting  such  measures  and  of 
determining  what  they  show  about  the  candidate 's 
character  is  in  a  sense  an  independent  enterprise. 
The  final  score  may  be  given  merely  as  a  measure 
of  precisely  that  thing  which  was  done.  Usually, 
however,  it  is  hoped  that  this  act  will  serve  as  a 
significant  index  of  more  comprehensive  aspects 
of  the  candidate 's  mental  equipment  or  character. 

When  tests  of  achievement  are  employed  they 
fall  more  or  less  clearly  into  two  groups.  If 
rating  in  the  tests  is  compared  with  other  mea- 
sures or  estimates,  some  tests  are  found  that 
appear   to   be   positively   and   relatively   closely 

139 


140      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

correlated  with  all  or  with  many  kinds  of  pro- 
ficiency. Thus  a  test  such  as  that  of  completing 
sentences  from  which  certain  words  have  been 
omitted,  has  been  found  to  correlate  positively 
with  many  other  tests,  with  estimates  of  associates 
for  *^ general  ability,''  or  *^ alertness,''  with  teach- 
ers' judgments  of  mental  capacity,  with  success 
in  school  work,  with  age  up  to  mental  maturity, 
and  with  proficiency  or  status  in  economic,  occu- 
pational or  general  affairs.  Such  a  test  appears 
to  be  a  useful  index  of  some  general  quality  of 
the  organism.  It  serves  as  a  significant  symptom 
of  general  competence.  In  the  literature  of 
mental  measurement  the  term  ** intelligence"  is 
commonly  used  to  designate  this  general  quality 
of  the  organism  in  so  far  as  it  is  manifested  in 
proficient  action  and  competent  conduct. 

Other  tests  are  found  (such  as  pitch  discrim- 
ination, color  sensibility,  strength  of  forearm) 
which  do  not  show  this  general  correlation  with 
proficiency.  They  may  be  more  or  less  unrelated 
to  other  performances,  responses,  or  attitudes,  in 
which  case  they  represent  or  suggest  special  apti- 
tudes, traits  which  are  distinguishable  from  gen- 
eral competence.  The  functions  indicated  may  be 
limited  to  the  precise  acts  involved  in  the  test,  or 


COMPETENCE  AND  APTITUDE       141 

they  may  be  more  extensive  than  this  and  point  to 
aptitudes  or  tendencies  in  a  certain  direction  or 
with  certain  kinds  of  material,  situation,  attitude, 
or  action.  Moreover,  although  distinguishable, 
identifiable,  and  measurable,  their  actual  manifes- 
tation in  the  individuaPs  unanalyzed  life  may  vary 
with  interest  in  them,  with  opportunity,  and  with 
general  competence.  Illustrations  of  such  special 
inclinations,  aptitudes,  or  interests  may  perhaps 
be  found  in  such  characteristics  as  eloquence, 
visual  imagery,  skill  in  literary  composition,  wit 
and  humor,  leadership,  mechanical  dexterity, 
aesthetic  sensitivity,  musical  ability. 

In  any  attempt  to  use  tests  for  the  purposes  of 
vocational  guidance  or  personnel  selection,  it  is 
important  to  know  whether  the  measures  reveal 
general  competence  or  special  aptitude,  and 
whether  the  measures  reflect  native  capacity 
solely,  or  are  also  determined  by  exercise; 
whether  the  contemplated  occupational  activity 
calls  for  special  aptitude,  skills  or  interests,  or 
whether  it  requires  only  such  general  understand- 
ing and  dexterity  as  is  involved  in  intelligence. 
Since  both  general  competence  and  special  apti- 
tudes may  characterize  different  individuals  in 
varying  degrees  or  amounts,  it  is  also  important 


142      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

to  know  what  level  of  capacity,  in  either  or  both 
respects,  the  work  demands,  and  whether  the 
capacities  required  must  be  natively  present  or 
whether  and  to  what  degree  they  are  susceptible 
of  acquisition  or  cultivation  through  training  and 
practice. 

An  Experimental  Demonstration 

In  the  following  table  are  brought  together  the 
results  of  several  different  investigations,  in 
which  standing  in  various  tests  has  been  corre- 
lated with  measures  of  occupational  proficiency 
or  with  estimates  of  supervisors.  The  figures 
show,  for  each  test,  the  correlation  in  the  case  in 
question,  with  occupational  ratings.  Although 
the  precise  results  and  their  final  interpretation 
must  be  held  subject  to  many  qualifications,  the 
data  adequately  illustrate  a  common  finding  in 
this  field. 

In  so  far  as  these  compilations  of  different 
investigations,  conducted  under  the  same  general 
supervision,  afford  comparable  data,  they  sug- 
gest that  Directions,  Color  Naming  and  Opposites, 
all  of  them  familiar  laboratory  tests,  tend  to 
reveal  general  competence.  They  give  definite 
positive  correlations  with  output  and  with  esti- 


COMPETENCE  AND  APTITUDE       143 


COERELATION  OF  CERTAIN  TeSTS  WITH  OCCUPATIONAL  RATINGS, 

UNDER  Particular  Circumstances 


Test 

II 

02  *^ 

II 

If 

1^ 

if 

h 

0)0 

13 
mo 

Directions 

.46 

.13 

.27 

.12 

.70 

.83 

.54 

.14 

Color  Naming. 

.34 

.43 

.43 

.36 

.38 

.00 

.38 

.21 

Opposites   

.45 

.14 

.41 

.44 

.00 

.98 

.40 

.55 

Analogies   

.31 

.00 

.33 

.58 

.00 

.71 

.43 

.32 

Checking 

.00 

.40 

.26 

.00 

.00 

.82 

.22 

.13 

mates  of  supervisors  in  most  of  the  eight  different 
types  of  work.  Analogies  and  Checking,  equally 
familiar  tests,  are  not  such  clear  instances  of 
general  indices.  Analogies,  to  be  sure,  fails  to 
correlate  with  only  two  of  the  occupational 
activities.  But  Checking  gives  zero  correlation 
with  three  types  of  work,  and  correlations  below 
.26  in  three  other  cases.  In  only  one  field  (Rout- 
ing Clerks)  does  this  test  correlate  more  closely 
than  .40  with  occupational  proficiency,  under  the 
circumstances  here  described. 

The  tentative  value  of  these  particular  correla- 
tions should  not  require  further  emphasis.  Other 
studies  with  the  same  tasks,  with  different  work- 
ers, and  under  different  local,  technical  and 
managerial  circumstances,  might  very  well  yield 


144      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

different  figures.  And  if  the  measures  of  occupa- 
tional proficiency  had  been  more  accurate  than 
they  were,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
correlations  would  have  been  closer  in  the  case  of 
some  of  the  tests  than  the  figures  indicate.  Corre- 
lations are  impaired  both  by  inaccuracy  in  the 
tests  and  by  inaccuracy  in  the  occupational 
ratings,  and  one  of  the  difficult  problems  in  estab- 
lishing the  meaning  of  tests  in  this  field  is  that  of 
securing  accurate  objective  ratings  of  individuals 
already  engaged  with  varying  degrees  of  success 
in  the  occupations  concerned. 

But  the  general  principle  suggested  in  these 
results  is  a  fairly  universal  one.  Some  aptitudes 
are  more  highly  specialized,  restricted  in  scope, 
and  more  nearly  elementary  in  character;  other 
aptitudes  manifest  more  general  functions,  atti- 
tudes, interests,  and  qualities.  The  general  quali- 
ties are  measured  by  attested  intelligence  tests. 
The  special  aptitudes  are  measured  by  tests  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  that  specific  purpose.  Since 
the  equipment  of  special  aptitudes  sets  limits  to 
the  repertoire  of  intelligence  or  general  achieve- 
ment, and  since  general  competence  determines 
the  appropriate  and  effective  use  of  special  apti- 
tudes, both  types  of  measurement  are  necessary  in 


COMPETENCE  AND  APTITUDE       145 

scientific  analysis  of  character  from  the  point  of 
view  of  competence  or  proficiency. 

Temperamental  Qualities 

A  third  group  of  tests  may  show  significant 
relations  to  traits  of  character  not  suggested 
either  by  ** general  competence''  nor  by  ^^ special 
aptitude."  Instead  they  may  disclose  more  or 
less  general  aspects  of  personality  for  which  the 
terms  competence  and  aptitude  are  not  entirely 
appropriate.  Traits  commonly  denoted  by  such 
terms  as  patience,  honesty,  cooperativeness,  kind- 
liness, sympathy,  stubbornness,  sociability,  will 
serve  as  suggestive  examples,  although  little  is 
yet  known  about  the  conditions  of  these  traits. 
In  a  preceding  chapter  we  have  shown  that  it  is 
on  these  traits  that  associates  differ  most  widely 
in  their  estimates.  This  suggests  that  many  of 
these  qualities  or  traits  may  be  not  so  much  traits 
of  one  individual  as  traits  of  a  pair  of  people. 
A's  cooperativeness  undoubtedly  depends  on  the 
personality  of  B  with  whom  he  is  cooperating. 
Should  the  resulting  degree  of  cooperativeness  be 
attributed  to  A  or  to  B  ?  Apparently  it  should  be 
applied  to  A  and  B  as  a  team,  rather  than  to  either 
alone.    Is  a  man's  cheerfulness  a  trait  of  the  man 


146      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

or  a  function  of  the  circumstances  in  which  he  is 
placed  ?  We  expect  a  stupid  man  to  be  quite  gen- 
erally stupid,  and  a  musical  person  to  be  musical 
under  all  ordinary  circumstances.  Obviously 
cooperativeness  and  cheerfulness  do  not  manifest 
themselves  in  this  way,  and  such  traits  must  be 
more  closely  related  to  circumstances  and  to  social 
combinations  of  individuals  than  are  the  specific 
aptitudes  and  general  competence. 

It  is  in  the  judgment  of  this  third  group  of 
characteristics  that  the  traditional  methods  find 
their  greatest  difficulties.  Similarly,  it  is  in  the 
measurement  of  these  traits  that  the  methods  of 
mental  measurement  have  made  the  least  prog- 
ress. A  more  detailed  discussion  of  these  diffi- 
culties will  be  presented  in  a  later  chapter,  when 
a  survey  is  given  of  the  present  status  of  such 
measurements.  For  the  present  we  are  chiefly 
concerned  in  drawing  the  distinction  between 
three  actual  or  possible  groups  of  tests,  those 
which  relate  to  the  general  quality  of  the  organ- 
ism 's  mental  activity,  those  which  relate  to  special 
aptitudes  and  restricted  proficiencies,  and  those 
which  may  be  shown  to  be  chiefly  related  to  the 
temperamental  characteristics,  in  so  far  as  these 
are  found  to  be  individual  traits. 


COMPETENCE  AND  APTITUDE       147 

Illustrative  Cases 

Illustrations  of  tests  designed  to  measure  gen- 
eral mental  competence,  alertness,  or  intelligence 
are  easily  found.  Among  the  simpler  processes 
that  seem  to  serve  this  purpose  are  the  various 
completion  tests,  in  which  verbal  or  pictorial 
materials  are  used.  Trabue's  Language  Scales 
and  Healy  ^s  Picture  Completion  Tests  are  typical 
instances.  Tests  involving  the  understanding  of 
instructions,  the  following  of  directions,  the  per- 
ception of  logical  relations,  the  learning  of  codes 
and  the  association  of  symbols,  solution  of  prob- 
lems, detection  of  similarities  and  differences, 
rapid  and  accurate  classification  of  materials, 
and  similar  acts  or  processes  have  been  found  Jo 
afford  good  indications  of  general  mental  com- 
petence. Such  tasks  are  included  in  most  of  the 
systems  of  intelligence  measurement,  such  as  those 
of  the  Army  Alpha,  the  original  Binet-Simon,  the 
Stanford  Eevision,  the  National  Intelligence 
Tests,  the  Otis  Group  Tests,  the  Performance 
Tests  Standardized  by  Pintner,  the  Thorndike 
College  Entrance  Tests,  the  Association  Tests  of 
Woodworth  and  Wells,   and  the  various   other 


148      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

sets  and  systems  assembled  or  devised  by 
numerous  workers  in  the  field  of  mental  measure- 
ment. 

Definite  tests  for  the  measurement  of  special 
aptitudes,  in  so  far  as  these  are  not  closely 
dependent  on  general  competence,  are  no  less 
numerous.  Seashore's  tests  of  musical  talent, 
which  afford  measures  of  sense  of  pitch,  sense 
of  time,  sense  of  intensity,  sense  of  consonance 
and  tonal  memory,  seem  to  relate  to  particular 
aptitudes  of  this  character.  Stenquist's  Assem- 
bling Tests  involve  a  type  of  mechanical  insight 
and  manual  dexterity  which,  although  to  a  certain 
degree  dependent  on  experience,  do  not  correlate 
closely  with  achievement  in  intelligence  tests. 
Various  educational  tests  and  the  trade  tests 
measure  special  acquisitions  and  skills  in  which 
general  competence,  however  much  it  may  be 
involved,  is  not  directly  revealed  by  the  test 
scores.  Among  the  educational  tests  are  such  as 
are  designed  to  measure  knowledge  or  ability  in 
reading,  arithmetic,  penmanship,  composition, 
languages,  algebra,  spelling,  and  other  academic 
subjects.  Among  the  trade  tests  are  the  various 
oral,  picture  and  performance  tests  which  identify 


COMPETENCE  AND  APTITUDE       149 

the  grade  of  skill  of  a  carpenter,  plumber, 
mechanic,  chauffeur,  telephone  operator,  boiler- 
maker,  cobbler,  etc.,  as  being  that  of  a  novice, 
apprentice,  journeyman,  or  expert.  The  numerous 
tests  of  sensory  and  motor  capacities,  such  aa 
those  for  auditory  and  visual  acuity,  color  vision, 
tactual  and  kinaesthetic  discrimination,  simple 
reaction  time,  speed  of  movement,  strength, 
steadiness  and  coordination,  are  designed  to 
measure  functions  in  which  general  competence  is 
not  closely  concerned. 

Among  the  measures  of  the  more  temperamental 
characteristics  may  be  listed  the  various  *  inter- 
est'' tests,  of  which  the  Mechanical  Interest  Test 
developed  by  Eice  is  the  most  definite  example. 
In  a  later  chapter  will  be  given  an  account  of  some 
of  the  methods  proposed  for  the  measurement  of 
such  temperamental  traits  as  will-pattern,  emotion 
and  mood,  nervous  stability,  suggestibility,  agges- 
siveness  and  eccentricity  of  thought. 

In  so  far  as  technic  of  construction  and  expres- 
sion of  results  are  concerned,  all  the  methods 
described  in  the  foregoing  chapter  may  be  utilized 
in  all  three  of  these  groups  of  tests  and  measures. 


160      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

The  present  distinctions  are  not  in  technic  but 
in  the  interpretation  of  results.  And  it  is  in  the 
interpretation  of  results  that  the  test  method, 
having  developed  adequate  measures,  becomes  a 
method  of  judging  character. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  METHOD  OF  THE  SAMPLE 

Practical  enterprise  is  often  content  with 
measures  of  the  candidate's  net  ability  to  effect 
certain  results,  regardless  of  the  particular  pat- 
tern of  traits  brought  to  bear  on  the  task.  The 
psychologist  on  the  other  hand,  in  so  far  as  he  is 
under  the  theoretical  rather  than  the  practical  mo- 
tivation, continues  to  be  interested  in  the  more 
detailed  features  of  performance.  So  indeed  must 
practical  enterprise,  also,  in  so  far  as  it  under- 
takes the  selection  and  training  of  apprentices  or 
novices  and  in  so  far  as  it  is  interested  in  the  can- 
didate's  future  progress  rather  than  in  his  imme- 
diate performance.  In  a  previous  study  of  th^ 
methods  of  vocational  psychology  ^  the  distinctions 
were  made  among  four  types  of  specialized  voca- 
tional tests,  instituted  mainly  in  the  interests  of 
practical  enterprise,  but  also  used  to  contribute 
toward  psychological  analysis  and  individual  guid- 
ance. These  are  the  methods  of  the  Miniature,  the 

1  Vocational  Psychology,  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  New  York. 

151 


152      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Analogy,  the  Sample  and  the  Empirical  Proce- 
dlire  or  Correlation.  In  the  subsequent  develop- 
ments of  this  field  the  Miniature  and  the  Analogy- 
have  justified  the  earlier  predictions — they  have 
not  contributed  materially  either  to  knowledge  or 
to  practice.  The  method  of  the  Sample  and  that 
of  the  Empirical  Correlation  have,  however, 
undergone  material  development.  In  this  chapter 
and  the  one  to  follow,  some  of  these  more  recent 
accomplishments  are  to  be  considered. 

The  Procedure  of  Sampling 

The  method  of  the  Sample  proceeds  by  requir- 
ing the  candidate  to  meet  definite  specimen  situa- 
tions, representing  the  tasks  which  his  character 
and  capacity  will  be  expected  to  handle  in  the 
actual  job.  In  terms  of  his  success  with  these 
samples,  his  character  and  capacity  are  rated  in 
the  lump,  as  of  such  a  sort  as  to  fit  him  to  do  the 
specified  work  or  to  meet  the  specified  situations 
with  a  given  degree  of  success.  No  analysis  of 
traits  is  made  and  ordinarily  no  distinction  is 
made  between  native  capacity  and  acquired  skill. 
Although  the  method  itself  is  entirely  non-psycho- 
logical, it  has  appeared  that  the  psychological 
attitude    and    familiarity    with    the    statistical 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  SAMPLE   153 

technic  and  the  experimental  procedures  asso- 
ciated with  psychology,  are  necessary  to  put  the 
method  on  a  solid  foundation.  Some  of  the  most 
definite  advances  in  the  measurement  of  skill  and 
knowledge,  notably  the  various  educational  scales 
and  the  trade  tests,  have  been  due  in  large 
measure  to  the  energetic  and  critical  work  of 
psychologists. 

In  the  earlier  account  of  the  method  of  the 
Sample,  it  was  described  as  that  of  taking  an 
actual  piece  of  the  work  to  be  performed  and 
sampling  the  candidate 's  ability  by  his  success  in 
this  trial.  Thus  in  connection  with  the  recom- 
mendation of  clerks  and  assistants  from  among 
the  boys  in  commercial  high  schools  it  is  common 
to  test  their  ability  from  time  to  time  through 
their  course  by  assigning  them  small  pieces  of 
work  similar  to  that  which  they  might  later  be 
required  to  perform  in  business  offices  and  shops. 
Finding  addresses  and  numbers  in  a  telephone 
directory,  carrying  out  involved  verbal  instruc- 
tions and  directions  from  memory,  computing 
calculations,  recommending  action  on  the  basis  of 
their  figures,  making  out  a  trial  balance,  a  trial 
chemical  analysis,  are  common  forms  of  this  type 
of  test.    In  certain  cases  such  specimens  of  work 


154      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

have  been  devised  in  or  taken  into  the  psycho- 
logical laboratory  and  the  worker  watched  more 
closely  and  measured  more  exactly. 

It  was  also  pointed  out  that  for  the  vocational 
test  of  this  type  to  be  at  all  significant,  either  the 
sort  of  work  involved  in  the  occupation  must  be 
fairly  uniform  and  homogeneous  in  all  its  different 
circumstances  (as  in  the  case  of  typewriting  at 
dictation,  or  in  the  work  of  filing  clerks,  account- 
ants, etc.)  or  else  there  must  be  included  a  large 
number  of  samples  representing  all  the  various 
unrelated  sorts  of  work. 

Teade  Test  Methods 

In  the  later  development  of  the  method  of  the 
Sample,  as  in  the  trade  tests  and  educational  tests, 
progress  came  mainly  through  the  development 
of  technic  for  the  selection,  not  so  much  of  com- 
plete samples  as  of  significant  ones.  Once  the 
selection  was  accomplished  the  work  of  establish- 
ing the  most  probable  skill  level  of  the  candidate 
as  that  of  novice,  apprentice,  journeyman,  expert, 
or  as  fourth  grade,  fifth  grade,  sixth  grade  ability, 
was  fairly  straightforward.  The  method  of  the 
sample,  then,  does  not  proceed  by  analysis  of  the 
particular  trait-pattern  of  the  candidate.    Instead 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  SAMPLE   155 

it  measures  his  success  in  handling  a  significant 
task  by  whatever  array  of  natural  capacities, 
interests,  education,  and  practice  he  may  be  able 
to  bring  to  bear  on  the  task.  It  represents,  in  a 
sense,  a  judgment  of  character,  but  of  character  in 
the  lump,  and  in  terms  of  present  status  only. 
It  reveals  neither  the  origin  of  the  skill  mani- 
fested, nor  does  it,  taken  alone,  delineate  the  pros- 
pects of  future  achievement.  Since  detailed  ac- 
counts of  the  derivation  of  such  product  scales 
and  trade  tests  are  available  in  the  appropriate 
reports  and  manuals,  we  need  give  here  but  a  brief 
sketch  of  them,  as  representing  the  modem 
development  of  the  method  of  the  Sample. 

The  trade  tests  afford  good  illustrations  of 
this  method.  Here  the  samples  chosen  are  either 
of  actual  trade  skill  or  of  trade  information.  Thus 
a  truck  driver  is  measured  in  trade  skill  by  having 
him  make  a  sample  trip,  accompanied  by  the 
judge.  But  the  tests  of  different  men,  in  different 
circumstances,  and  ratings  by  different  judges, 
are  given  objective  character  and  definition  by 
their  adhering  to  the  general  principles  of  a 
mental  test.  A  standard  outfit,  standard  trip, 
specified  situations  and  emergencies,  prescribed 
methods  of  scoring  and  of  interpreting  the  score, 


156      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

give  results  that  have  a  validity  far  exceeding 
that  of  the  mere  subjective  opinion  of  an  inspec- 
tor. The  *^  performance  tesf  for  general  black- 
smiths neatly  illustrates  the  method  of  the 
Sample,  inasmuch  as  only  one  of  hundreds  of 
possible  tasks  is  used.  But  the  task  is  so  chosen 
as  to  have  demonstrated  value  in  differentiating 
the  various  skill  levels  recognizable  in  the  trade. 
It  is  thus  a  significant  sample  and  serves  as  an 
index  of  the  total  equipment  of  information  and 
skill  possessed  by  the  candidate.  In  this  test 
standard  equipment,  materials  and  tools  are  pro- 
vided, standard  instructions  formulated,  and  a 
standard  scoring  plan  prescribed.  The  candidate, 
presented  with  a  blue  print  specification  for  the 
making  of  a  twisted  hook  of  definite  shape  and 
size,  carries  out  to  the  best  of  his  ability  the 
various  processes  of  preparing,  welding,  twisting, 
punching,  and  bending  the  materials  provided,  so 
as  to  make  a  product  conforming  to  the  specifica- 
tions. When  such  hooks  are  made  under  these 
conditions,  are  scored  according  to  the  prescribed 
criteria  of  excellence,  and  the  standard  scoring 
units  are  assigned,  a  score  of  less  than  two  points 
characterizes  the  novice,  whereas  blacksmiths' 
apprentices  may  score  anywhere  from  2  to  131 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  SAMPLE   157 

points.  Jourueyman  blacksmiths  are  found  to 
score  from  132  to  143  points,  inclusive,  and  only 
experts  at  the  trade  are  likely  to  score  above  143 
points.  This  performance  trade  test  thus  not 
only  illustrates  the  method  of  the  sample  but  also 
the  construction  method  of  Response  Values  and 
the  expression  principle  of  Skill  Levels  or 
Developmental  Units. 

The  performance  test,  as  a  method  of  sampling, 
approaches  fairly  closely  to  the  traditional  prac- 
tice of  hiring  on  trial.  It  differs  from  this  method 
in  its  emphasis  on  standardization.  In  other  forms 
of  the  trade  test,  the  picture  method  and  the  oral 
method,  a  more  indirect  judgment  replaces  the 
fairly  direct  perception  of  the  candidate's  skill. 
In  these  forms  actual  operative  skill  is  not  sam- 
pled. Instead,  sample  measurements  of  the 
information  concerning  the  trade  processes  and 
implements  or  materials  are  used  as  indices  both 
of  the  total  stock  of  knowledge  and  of  the  most 
probable  degree  of  skill  thereby  implied.  Through 
careful  preliminary  investigation,  standard  oral 
questions  and  pictures  calling  for  explanation, 
naming  of  parts,  etc.,  are  selected.  These  are  so 
chosen  that  the  score  is  not  subject  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  examiner  nor  to  chance  replies,  but 


158      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

can  be  objectively  determined  from  the  answers 
given  by  any  one  who  can  read  the  scoring  direc- 
tions. They  are  chosen,  moreover,  so  that  the 
total  scores  from  a  given  array  of  questions  indi- 
cates, in  the  light  of  previously  ascertained 
norms,  the  most  probable  skill  level  of  the  candi- 
date. A  series  of  ten  to  twenty  questions  bearing 
solely  on  trade  information  which  is  elicited 
through  oral  interrogation  or  the  use  of  pictures, 
can  be  selected  so  as  to  afford  a  significant  and 
practicable  index  of  actual  occupational  com- 
petence at  the  date  of  examination.  This  fact  in 
itself  shows  the  very  valuable  contribution  to  the 
analysis  and  measurement  of  human  capacity 
made  by  the  method  of  the  Sample. 

Educational  Measukement 

Such  sample  measures,  when  properly  organized 
and  applied,  afford  something  more  than  informa- 
tion to  be  used  in  the  selection  of  workers  for 
immediate  assignment  and  occupation.  They  may 
be  used  also  to  measure  the  progress  under  train- 
ing and  the  effectiveness  of  instruction,  if  ade- 
quate precautions  are  used.  In  the  light  of  a 
candidate 's  previous  experience  they  may  also  be 
used  as  signs  of  his  probable  future  attainments. 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  SAMPLE   159 

It  was  as  a  matter  of  fact  to  the  confluence  of  two 
active  enterprises — the  measurement  of  educa- 
tional products  in  school  administration  and  the 
search  for  improved  technic  in  trade  interviews, 
that  the  striking  advance  of  trade  test  methods, 
in  the  military  emergency,  is  to  be  attributed. 

In  our  earlier  references  to  the  measurements 
of  the  quality  of  hand  writing,  as  an  example  of 
the  use  of  Absolute  Units,  the  use  of  the  sampling 
method  in  educational  practice  is  also  illustrated. 
The  educational  product  scales  classify  the  candi- 
date ^s  present  attainment  in  the  subject  to  which 
they  relate.  Ability  in  penmanship,  composition, 
drawing,  history,  arithmetic,  algebra,  Latin, 
grammar,  reading,  and  various  other  academic 
skills,  constituting  as  each  does  *'a  combination 
of  a  complex  set  of  intellectual  and  muscular 
coordinations,''  are  constituent  elements  of  a 
candidate's  total  character.  In  practically  all 
these  instances  of  educational  measurement  the 
method  of  the  Sample  is  used  as  a  basis  for  judg- 
ments of  the  more  complex  patterns  of  informa- 
tion and  dexterity.  Either  sample  tasks  confront 
the  pupil  whose  general  rating  depends  on  his 
success  with  these  samples,  or  else  a  sample  of 
his  own  work  is  rated  on  a  concrete  specimen  scale. 


160      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

The  utility  and  validity  of  the  method,  whether 
in  industry  or  in  education,  rests  on  the  possibility 
of  securing,  in  a  limited  set  of  test  samples,  reac- 
tions which,  though  far  from  exhausting  the  com- 
plex field  of  facts  and  actions,  are  nevertheless 
representative  or  significant  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture. 

It  is  quite  beyond  our  prese'iit  jnirpose  in  this 
discussion  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the  construc- 
tion, use,  and  interpretation  of  trade  tests  or  of 
educational  product  scales.  Each  of  these  is  in 
itself  an  elaborate  field,  and  they  have  been  amply 
set  forth  in  other  places.  Our  purpose  has  been 
simply  that  of  exemplifying,  through  them,  the 
very  striking  advance  in  the  diagnosis  of  human 
capacity  in  the  case  of  one  of  the  methods,  that 
of  the  Sample,  which  though  early  recognized  and 
roughly  employed,  as  in  the  traditional  trade 
interview  and  the  conventional  academic  exam- 
ination, awaited  the  application  of  psychological 
and  statistical  technic  and  the  cooperation  of 
schools  and  industries  with  scientific  men,  before 
it  developed  into  anything  like  a  method  of 
diagnosis. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CHARACTER  ANALYSIS  THROUGH 
CORRELATION 

In  the  earlier  account  of  the  methods  of  voca- 
tional psychology  a  method  of  analysis  and  ap- 
praisal was  pointed  out  which  is  especially  char- 
acterized by  the  small  number  of  assumptions 
which  it  involves.  It  is  further  characterized  by 
the  considerable  amount  of  labor  and  of  expert 
understanding  for  which  it  calls.  This  is  the 
method  of  Empirical  Procedure  or  the  method  of 
Correlation.  Beginning  with  a  group  of  individ- 
uals who  differ  in  known  degrees  with  respect  to 
some  trait  or  capacity,  this  method  seeks  for 
clues  to  those  differences.  A  great  number  of 
measured  details,  such  for  example  as  physical 
features,  education,  individual  interests,  ability 
in  various  single  tests,  etc.,  are  compared  with  the 
known  status  of  the  individuals  in  the  trait  in 
question.  Each  measured  feature  is  independently 
correlated  with  the  known  status  in  the  hope  of 

161 


162      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

finding  some,  among  many,  that  are  significantly 
and  consistently  related  to  the  trait  itself. 

By  such  empirical  procedure  certain  tests  may 
be  found  which  are  positively  correlated  with  the 
more  general  trait  or  capacity  and  hence  may 
serve  as  symptoms  or  signs  of  it.  It  is  not  pre- 
tended that  the  significant  tests  are  miniatures 
of  the  larger  pattern,  nor  samples  of  its  opera- 
tion, nor  even  that  they  involve  the  same  funda- 
mental functions.  The  test  records  show  signifi- 
cant correlations  with  the  ability  or  trait,  so  that 
excellence,  mediocrity  or  inferiority  in  the  one  is 
as  a  mere  matter  of  fact,  empirically  determined, 
indicative  of  similar  standing  in  the  other.  Hence 
with  an  assurance  depending  on  the  degree  of 
correlation,  standing  in  the  one  may  be  taken  as 
a  symptom  of  standing  in  the  other.  This  is  not 
an  unique  logical  procedure.  In  the  same  way 
a  patient's  temperature,  or  the  activity  of  his 
reflexes,  or  the  analysis  of  his  blood  or  urine  may 
serve  as  a  sign  of  the  more  general  bodily  condi- 
tion. 

Obviously,  several  symptoms  are  more  reliable 
than  any  single  one  of  them,  and  in  the  correlation 
method  several  significant  tests  are  sought  for. 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  CORRELATION  163 

Preferably  those  tests  are  finally  chosen  all  of 
which  are  closely  correlated  with  the  trait  or  abil- 
ity but  none  of  which  is  closely  correlated  with 
the  others.  In  such  a  team  or  battery  of  tests 
each  reveals,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  its 
correlation,  a  significant  feature  or  part  of  the 
more  general  pattern,  and  no  one  test  tends  merely 
to  duplicate  the  contribution  of  another.  The 
greater  the  number  of  tests,  the  higher  the  correla- 
tion of  each  with  the  established  criterion  or  trait 
or  ability,  and  the  lower  the  intercorrelations  of 
the  tests  themselves,  the  more  completely  will  the 
team  reveal  the  total  character  pattern  of  the  indi- 
vidual. By  the  proper  statistical  technic  it  is 
possible  not  only  to  correlate  the  tests  with  the 
trait  and  with  one  another,  but  also  to  determine 
the  degree  to  which  each  reveals  information  not 
already  contributed  by  the  others. 

Empirical  Correlation  Procedure 
Certain,  prerequisites  of  this  method  must  be 
enumerated.  In  the  first  place  there  must  be  an 
experimental  group  of  individuals  differing  in 
known  degrees  or  standing  in  known  relations  to 
each  other,  with  respect  to  the  trait  or  capacity 


164      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

concerned.  If  the  trait  is  an  acquired  pattern, 
such  as  trade  skill,  the  tests  may  then  serve  as 
signs  of  the  presence  of  this  skill,  but  they  do  not, 
on  this  basis  alone,  serve  to  predict  the  degree  of 
ability  to  acquire  such  patterns.  Ability  to  do  the 
tests  may  have  been  acquired  along  with  skill  in 
the  trade  and.  hence  may  be  part  of  or  a  result  of 
that  acquisition. 

The  use  of  this  method  for  predictive  purposes, 
as  in  vocational  guidance,  in  the  adoption  of  chil- 
dren, or  in  the  selection  of  candidates  for  instruc- 
tion or  development,  requires  that  the  tests  be 
made  on  unpracticed  or  naive  individuals,  who 
shall  then  proceed  through  training  and  exercise  to 
develop  such  degrees  of  the  trait  or  skill  pattern 
as  they  can.  Comparison  of  original  test  scores, 
made  before  such  practice,  with  skill  ratings  after 
practice,  will  then  yield  correlations  which,  in 
varying  degree  will  indicate  the  prognostic  value  -i 
of  the  tests. 

In  both  the  diagnostic  and  the  prognostic,  that 
is  the  selective  and  the  predictive  use  of  this  pro- 
cedure, correct  trait  or  skill  ratings  on  the  experi- 
mental group  must  be  available.  To  secure  rat- 
ings which  will  be  actually  objective,  or  at  least 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  COREELATION  165 

reliable,  is  by  no  means  easy.  It  is  in  fact  one  of 
the  most  formidable  of  the  various  problems  en- 
countered in  the  use  of  the  method.  Even  when 
individuals  have  long  records  of  achievement  be- 
hind them,  so  that  evaluation  rests  more  directly 
on  perception  than  on  judgment,  measurement  of 
ability  is  far  from  simple.  For  one  thing  the 
circumstances  and  setting  of  the  various  achieve- 
ments are  usually  neither  alike,  nor  constant,  nor 
obvious.  Production  records,  sales  sheets,  and 
similar  data,  for  example,  do  not  entirely  reflect 
the  relative  values  of  employees.  They  do  not 
include  the  contribution  made  by  each  toward  the 
'^good  wilP'  of  the  public  nor  the  prospect  of  con- 
tinued or  future  returns. 

Nor  are  such  data  in  themselves  necessarily 
comparable,  since  different  workers  may  have  en- 
countered different  geographical  conditions,  dif- 
ferent competition,  commodity  differences,  differ- 
ences in  consumer  resistances.  Salaries  and 
wages  are  equally  subject  to  irregular  influences, 
such  as  length  of  service,  for  example.  Task  and 
bonus  systems  of  rating  inevitably  involve  a  de- 
gree of  arbitrariness  or  chance.  Estimates  of 
supervisors,  as  we  have  seen,  vary  from  individ- 


166      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

ual  to  indiyidual  and  from  trait  to  trait.  Each 
factor  which  might  contribute  toward  a  correct 
statement  based  on  criteria  other  than  the  tests 
themselves  must  itself  be  investigated,  correlated 
with  other  criteria,  and  given  its  proportionate 
value  in  the  trait  or  skill  rating. 

A  Typical  Investigation" 

The  following  series  of  results,  from  Rogers* 
study  of  typewriting  and  stenographic  ability, 
serves  to  illustrate  at  the  same  time  both  the 
prognostic  and  the  diagnostic  use  of  this  correla- 
tion method.  A  group  of  students,  upon  beginning 
their  study  of  typewriting,  were  given  various 
tests,  chosen  more  or  less  at  random.  Each  month 
thereafter  ratings  or  measures  of  skill  were  ob- 
tained on  the  basis  of  set  trials  in  the  skill  being 
acquired,  with  objective  ratings  for  quantity  and 
quality  of  work.  On  each  monthly  occasion  these 
objective  ratings  were  compared  with  the  test 
standings,  secured  once  for  all  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year.  The  table  on  the  following  page 
gives  the  correlation  of  test  scores  and  current 
skill  for  each  of  the  first  three  months  mA  for  the 
last  month  of  the  year 's  work : 


ANALYSIS  THEOUGH  CORRELATION  167 


COEBEIiATION  Ot  TESTS  WITH  SKILL  IN  TYPEWRITING  (ROGBRS) 


Test 

October 

Nocember 

December 

April 

Verb— Object    ... 

.41 

.43 

.46 

.57 

Color  Naming 

.30 

.43 

.45 

.61 

Checking-  Numbers 

.45 

.47 

.37 

.30 

Action — Agent    . . 

.42 

.43 

.29 

.40 

Substitution 

.21 

.27 

.11 

.42 

Agent — ^Action    . . 

.29 

.19 

.40 

.28 

Direction    

.11 

.14 

.19 

.32 

Opposites 

.17 

.11 

.07 

.54 

Analogies 

—.09 

.21 

.17 

.00 

It  is  clear,  first,  that  these  various  tests  cor- 
related to  different  degrees  with  typewriting  pro- 
ficiency. They  are  arranged  in  the  table  in  order 
of  their  significance  throughout  the  year,  as  in- 
dices of  this  trait  or  capacity,  from  best  to  poor-, 
est.  The  correlation  coefficients  become  smaller 
as  one  goes  through  the  list  of  tests  from  Verb- 
Object  to  Analogies.  • 

If  we  suppose  that  achievement  after  one  school 
year  of  practice  indicates  with  approximate  ac- 
curacy the  probable  final  standings  in  actual  type- 
writing ability,  it  is  clear  that  these  significant 
tests  are  not  only  diagnostic  at  that  time,  but 
were  also  prognostic  from  the  very  beginning. 
Before  the  acquisition  of  trade  skill  was  begun^ 
these  tests  (the  first  four  or  ^ve  in  the  list  as  it 
stands)  indicated  with  accuracy  varying  with  their 


168     JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

respective  correlations,  the  capacity  of  the  indi- 
viduals to  acquire  the  trade  skill  in  question.  The 
remaining  tests  were  less  indicative  or  not  at  all 
significant  of  this  capacity  to  learn.  Although 
the  correlations  increase  somewhat  from  month 
to  month  in  all  cases,  it  is  mainly  the  tests  that 
indicate  relative  aptitude  in  the  first  month  that 
also  indicate  it  most  definitely  at  the  end  of  train- 
ing. 

Initial  scores  in  some  of  these  tests  seem  to 
Bhow  no  dependable  relation  to  typewriting  pro- 
ficiency. They  will  not  be  included  in  the  final 
team  to  be  used  for  such  prognosis  or  diagnosis. 
So  far  as  the  table  gives  information,  it  may  well 
be  that  several  of  the  tests  give  equally  good  cor- 
relations merely  because  they  sample  or  reflect 
practically  the  same  elements  in  the  total  pattern. 
Or  they  may  alike  depend  on  some  general  type 
of  competence.  The  best  team  will  be  made  up 
of  those  tests  from  this  list  or  from  lists  derived 
from  further  investigation,  all  of  which  give  sig- 
nificant but  usually  imperfect  indication  of  the 
total  pattern,  but  which,  by  not  correlating  closely 
among  themselves,  suggest  that  they  represent 
different  features  of  that  pattern.    Under  refined 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  CORRELATION  169 

statistical  treatment  the  precise  amount  of  new 
information  given  by  the  addition  of  the  results  of 
any  one  test  to  those  of  another  will  be  deter- 
mined, and  appropriate  weight  given  to  each  test 
score,  in  terms  of  its  independent  contribution. 
The  explanation  of  these  statistical  refinements 
is  beyond  our  present  purposes.  It  should  not 
require  pointing  out  that  even  these  results,  until 
further  verified,  apply  only  to  typewriting  abil- 
ity under  the  circumstances  described  and  meas- 
ured by  the  criterion  actually  used  on  this  occa- 
sion. 

Differential.  Tests 

That  some  specific  pattern  of  traits  or  apti- 
tudes is  involved  in  typewriting  is  indicated  by 
comparison  of  the  correlation  of  these  tests  in 
the  two  cases  of  typewriting  and  stenography  or 
grammar.  In  the  following  tabulation  of  Rogers ' 
data  the  correlation  of  each  test  with  typewriting 
at  the  mid-year  period  are  compared  with  the 
correlations  of  each  test  with  mid-year  instruc- 
tor's grades  for  stenography  and  for  grammar, 
for  the  same  group  of  students : 


170      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 


Correlation  with  Mid- Year  Status 


Test 

Typewriting 
.55 

Stenography 

Orammar 

Verb— Object 

.36 

.37 

Color  Naming 

.41 

.34 

.38 

Checking  Numbers.. 

.53 

.07 

.22 

Agent — Action 

.31 

.19 

.37 

Substitution    

.37 

.40 

.16 

Agent — Action 

.31 

.19 

.37 

Directions   

.13 

.46 

.54 

Opposites    

.15 

.45 

.40 

Analogies    

.25 

.31 

.43 

Here  it  appears  that  the  same  tests  do  not,  in 
the  main,  correlate  best  with  all  three  skill  pat- 
terns. If  we  draw  a  line  across  the  table  separat- 
ing the  better  from  the  poorer  tests  for  typewrit- 
ing, it  is  to  be  observed  that  although  the  good 
tests  for  this  skill  lie  above  the  line,  the  tests  that 
correlate  well  with  the  two  other  skills  are  found 
on  the  whole  below  the  line.  The  typewriting  cor- 
relations tend  to  decrease  as  one  goes  down  the 
list  of  tests.  Correlations  with  Stenography  and 
with  Grammar,  on  the  other  hand,  tend  to  increase 
as  one  goes  down  the  list  of  tests.  It  is  just  those 
tests  that  stand  low  as  indices  of  typewriting 
skill  that  stand  high  as  signs  of  stenographic  and 
grammatical  excellence.  Certain  tests,  moreover, 
such  as  Color-Naming  and  Verb-Object,  tend  to 
correlate  with  all  three  skill  patterns.    These  sug- 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  CORRELATION  171 


gest  the  presence  in  all  these  skills  of  a  common 
factor. 

A  further  illustration  of  the  possibility  of  find- 
ing tests  with  specific  differential  value  is  to  be 
found  in  an  investigation  reported  by  Link.^ 
Production  records  of  inspectors  and  gagers  in 
a  factory  were  correlated  with  five  different  tests. 
These  tests  Vv^ere  card  sorting,  tapping,  cancela- 
tion, number  group  checking,  and  a  directions 
test  used  as  an  index  of  general  intelligence.  The 
correlations  were  as  follows: 

Differential  Correlations  (Link) 


Sort- 
ing 

Tap- 
ping 

Cancel-    Check- 
ation         ing 

Intelli- 
gence 

Inspectors    .... 
Gagers      

.55 
.05 

.14 
.52 

.63 
.17 

.72 
—.10 

.14 
.18 

The  single  intelligence  test  does  not  correlate 
closely  with  production  records  in  either  opera- 
tion. Of  the  remaining  four  tests,  three  correlate 
closely  in  the  case  of  inspectors,  the  average  of  the 
three  correlations  being  .63.  But  these  three  tests 
do  not  correlate  with  production  in  the  case  of 
the  gangers,  the  average  of  the  three  correlations 
being  .OL  The  other  test,  Tapping,  on  the  other 
hand,  correlates  fairly  well  in  the  case  of  gagers 
(.52),  but  poorly  in  the  case  of  inspectors  (.14). 

1  H.  C.  Link.  Employment  Psychology,  p.  35. 


172      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 


Here,  in  other  words,  is  one  test  that  cor- 
relates with  neither  type  of  work,  several  that  cor- 
relate with  one  or  the  other  but  not  with  both, 
and  none  that  correlates  significantly  with  both 
operations. 

A  still  more  striking  case  of  the  differentiating 
of  trade  skills  by  tests  is  reported  by  Bregman.^ 
Sales  girls  and  clerical  workers  were  rated  by 
supervisors  so  that  they  might  be  fairly  classified 
as  good,  average,  and  poor,  in  both  cases.  In  the 
case  here  considered  the  average  workers  are  not 
considered,  but  test  records  of  good  and  poor 
workers  in  each  group  are  correlated  with  the  rat- 
ings. The  following  table  represents  only  a  sam- 
ple of  the  much  more  elaborate  data  presented  in 
Bregman's  paper,  in  which  will  be  found  also  a 
description  of  the  various  tests  employed. 
Correlations  with  Ratings 


Test 

Good  and  Poor 
Sales  Girls 

Good  and  Poor 
Clerical  Workers 

1    

—.16 
—M 
—.79 
—.22 
—.79 
—.54 
—.59 

.09 

2    

00 

3    

.31 

4    

.28 

5    

.37 

6    

.28 

Total  1 — 6 

34 

2  Elsie  Oschrin  Bregrman,  "A  Study  in  Industrial  Psychology- 
Tests  for  Special  Abilities,"  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  June, 
1921. 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  CORRELATION  173 

The  point  of  interest  here  is  not  so  much  the 
actual  magnitude  of  the  correlations  as  their  con- 
trasting direction.  A  set  of  tests  which  correlates 
positively  with  one  operation  correlates  nega- 
tively with  the  other.  The  differential  value  of 
such  tests  is  apparent.  As  Bregman  remarks 
^ '  what  is  apparent  is  the  tendency  for  sales  clerks 
and  clericals  to  pull  in  distinctly  opposite  direc- 
tions, so  that  we  have  a  difference  between  trades 
as  distinct  as  the  differences  within  a  trade,  if  not 
more  so.'' 

The  examples  given  are  typical  of  many  now  on 
record  in  the  technical  literature  of  mental  meas- 
urement. References  to  several  of  these  are  given 
in  the  bibliography  for  readers  who  may  be  inter- 
ested in  more  detailed  acquaintance  with  this 
method  of  analysis.  It  is  a  method  which,  beyond 
all  those  we  have  considered,  calls  for  statistical 
expertness,  from  the  beginning  of  an  empirical 
inquiry  to  the  practical  application  of  the  results. 
Thus,  so  long  as  correlations  of  skill  pattern  or 
trait  with  test  scores  are  not  perfect,  inference 
from  test  rating  to  most  probable  skill  or  trait 
rating,  either  prognostic  or  diagnostic,  is  not 
straightforward  and  simple.  Since  no  perfect  cor- 
relations have  yet  resulted  from  the  use  of  this 


174      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

method,  the  inference  from  test  score  to  valid 
judgment  of  character  calls  for  statistical  tech- 
nique no  less  rigorous  than  that  involved  in  the 
selection  of  the  significant  tests. 

It  should  of  course  be  borne  in  mind  that  two 
traits,  or  a  given  trait  and  occupational  success, 
may  not  correlate  throughout  their  whole  range. 
Thus  intelligence  below  a  certain  point  may  dis- 
qualify one  for  the  work  of  errand  boy.  Intelli- 
gence above  a  certain  point  may  act  in  the  same 
way,  if  only  because  of  unrest  and  brief  job  ten- 
ure. But  within  the  middle  range,  intelligence 
may  be  fairly  well  correlated  with  success  in  such 
work.  A  certain  completeness  of  color  vision  is 
required  to  be  a  competent  locomotive  engineer, 
since  colored  light  signals  must  be  correctly  iden- 
tified. But  beyond  a  certain  point  it  is  improb- 
able that  fineness  of  color  discrimination  is  of 
any  advantage  in  such  work.  Thus  along  a  cer- 
tain limited  range  of  the  degrees  of  a  trait  or  of 
test  scores,  correlation  may  be  close,  although  the 
total  range  may  not  disclose  this  fact,  and  single 
correlation  coefficients  for  the  whole  series  may 
convey  false  impressions.^    For  such  reasons  the 

3E.  L.  Thorndike.  "Fundamental  Theorems  in  Judging  Men," 
Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  March,  1918. 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  CORRELATION  175 

correlation  method  may  frequently  be  supple- 
mented to  advantage  by  other  methods,  such  as 
those  in  which  scatter  diagrams  of  all  the  candi- 
dates are  prepared,  or  by  those  in  which  psycho- 
graphic  analysis  of  the  individual  is  made,  or  by 
those  in  which  critical  scores  are  determined. 
Some  of  these  possibilities  are  indicated  in  the 
last  chapter  of  this  book. 

The   following  classification  will   suggest  the 
variety  of  uses  to  which  the  correlation  method 
has  been  put  in  the  search  for  methods  of  voca- 
tional and  industrial  analysis.    Only  those  cases 
are  cited  in  which  correlation  results  in  some  form 
are  given,  and  in  the  main  only  those  for  which 
published  accounts  are  available.     Reference  to 
the  definite  sources  will  be  found  in  the  bibliog- 
raphy for  this  chapter  in  Appendix  A.* 
Clerical  Worlcers,    Thorndike,  Diick,  Link,  Thur- 
stone,  Bregman,  Hollingworth  and  Poffenber- 
ger,  Burtt. 
Typewriting.    Lahy,  Lough,  Rogers,  Link,  Chap- 
man. 
Comptometers,    Link,  Marcus,  Bills. 

4  A  good  summary  account  of  many  of  these  cases  is  given  in 
Muscio,  Vocational  Guidance  (A  Review  of  the  Literature),  which 
appeared  as  Report  No.  12,  of  the  Industrial  Fatigue  Research 
Board,  London,  1921, 


176      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Engineering,    Thomdike,  Thurstone,  Scott  (Tra- 

bue). 
Music.    Seashore. 
Printing.    Lipmann,  Krais. 
Salesmanship.      Scott,    Hollingworth,     Oschrin, 

Muensterberg  (Burtt). 
Telegraphy.    Jones,  Thurstone. 
Telephone  Operating.    Muensterberg,  McComas, 

Nead,  Fontegne  and  Solari. 
Motormen.    Muensterberg,  Stern,  Sachs. 
Aviation,    Head,  Stamm,  Henmon,  Dockeray  and 

Isaacs,  Stratton-McComas-Hoover  and  Bagby. 
Stenography.     Lough,  Rogers,  Bills,  Burtt. 
Factory    Operations.     Link,   Burr,   Otis,   Burtt, 

Carney,  Allen,  Hollingworth  and  Poffenberger. 

As  has  been  suggested  already,  the  use  of  tests 
and  of  correlation  methods  in  character  analysis 
has  distinct  limitations,  and  in  incompetent  hands 
such  methods  may  result  in  actual  mischief.  There 
are  two  ways,  in  practice,  in  which  such  dangers 
may  best  be  avoided.  If  an  industry  or  business 
or  institution  is  sufficiently  largo  to  maintain  its 
own  personnel  organization,  a  department  of  edu- 
cation, or  a  department  of  industrial  relations, 


ANALYSIS  THROUGH  COEEELATION  177 

at  least  one  responsible  member  of  this  staff 
should  be  an  expert  trained  in  the  methods  of 
mental  measurement,  trade  test  procedure,  cor- 
relation technie,  and  general  statistical  pro- 
cedure. Where  such  specialization  is  not  feasible, 
part-time  consulting  connections  may  usually  be 
made  with  psychological  and  statistical  special- 
ists connected  with  university  faculties,  or  with 
special  bureaus  of  industrial  research,  such  as  the 
Psychological  Corporation,  with  its  various  local 
branches,  and  the  Bureau  of  Personnel  Research 
of  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology. 

The  empirical  procedure  is  a  method  of  charac- 
ter analysis  easily  open  to  misuse.  Misuse  of  the 
method,  through  failure  to  comprehend  its  inev- 
itable complexity,  may  easily  result  in  profes- 
sional chagrin  and  practical  disappointment.  Al- 
together, the  method  itself  is  more  important  than 
any  particular  results  that  have  been  achieved 
through  its  application.  It  is  the  final  method  that 
must  be  applied  to  test  the  validity  of  any  pre- 
sumed criteria  of  character.  Especially  from  the 
point  of  view  of  character  judgments  in  vocation 
and  industry,  the  method  has  a  twofold  advantage. 
At  the  same  time  that  it  identifies  the  traits  of 


178      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

the  individual  that  signify  successful  work,  it  indi- 
cates, although  it  may  not  name,  the  aptitudes 
which  the  execution  of  that  work  involves.  It  is 
thus  at  the  same  time  a  method  of  character  judg- 
ment and  a  technic  of  job  analysis. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  DIAGNOSIS  OP  TEMPERAMENT 

Moral  and  Social  Traits 

That  people  differ  in  what  we  may  call  tem- 
perament, as  well  as  in  competence  and  in  apti- 
tude, in  trade  skill  and  in  educational  status,  is 
apparent.  If  aptitude  and  interest  determine 
what  they  do,  and  if  competence  sets  a  limit  to 
their  achievement,  there  is  still  to  be  considered 
their  manner  of  doing.  Two  workmen  of  equal 
general  competence,  with  identical  degree  of  spe- 
cial skill,  will  nevertheless  differ  in  character. 
One  will  work  calmly,  the  other  more  excitedly; 
one  will  be  steady,  the  other  more  erratic.  Con- 
fidence and  distrust,  cheerfulness  and  gloom,  gen- 
erosity and  selfishness,  courage  and  cowardice, 
loyalty  and  infidelity,  adaptability  and  stubborn- 
ness, truthfulness  and  deceitfulness,  aggressive- 
ness and  submissiveness,  taciturnity  and  loquac- 
ity, scepticism  and  credulity,  and  dozens  of  sim- 
ilar word  pairs,  indicate  the  extremes  of  vari- 

179 


180      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

ous  lines  drawn  through  human  character  in  com- 
mon speech. 

In  mental  disease  the  constitutional  attitudes, 
moods  and  dispositions  often  show  themselves  in 
heightened  degree,  and  the  volitional  and  emo- 
tional features  may  constitute  essential  aspects 
of  the  clinical  pictures.  The  ancients  were  wont 
to  attribute  these  constitutional  differences  to  the 
balance  of  various  bodily  fluids  in  the  individuaPs 
system,  the  bile,  phlegm,  blood,  or  to  the  mixture 
of  elements  such  as  earth,  air,  fire  and  water. 
Many  modern  authorities  believe  that  some  at 
least  of  these  character  traits  depend  upon  the 
activity  of  various  glands  and  their  secretions. 
A  recent  writer  suggests  that  temperament  might 
significantly  be  called  the  *  *  chemique  ^ '  of  the  indi- 
vidual as  distinguished  from  his  ** physique.'^ 
Other  authorities  are  inclined  to  attribute  these 
moral  or  social  qualities  to  the  pattern  of  instinc- 
tive equipment  inherited  by  the  individual  from 
his  forebears.  Some  of  the  temperamental  traits, 
again,  seem  to  be  explicable  in  terms  of  early 
established  habits.  Others  may  represent  only 
special  aspects  of  intelligence,  or  interests  occa- 
sioned by  special  aptitudes.  In  a  preceding  sec- 
tion, moreover,  it  was  suggested  that  many  of 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      181 

these  terms  refer  not  so  much  to  traits  of  indi- 
viduals as  to  the  conduct  of  particular  human 
pairs,  or  characteristics  of  human  nature  under 
special  circumstances.  Link,  in  his  interesting 
book,  *^ Employment  Psychology,''  devotes  con- 
siderable space  to  a  suggestive  discussion  of  the 
** relativity''  of  these  moral  and  social  character- 
istics of  people.  The  following  quotation  indi- 
cates the  general  tenor  of  this  author's  point  of 
view: 

One  of  the  great  errors  which  eraployment  managers, 
foremen,  superintendents,  and  all  other  people,  including 
ministers,  teachers,  and  religious  workers  fall  into,  is  the 
belief  that  the  moral  qualities  are  absolute  qualities.  They 
believe  that  if  a  man  is  lazy  he  is  lazy.  If  he  is  industrious 
he  is  industrious.  If  he  is  cheerful  he  is  cheerful.  If  he  is 
disloyal  he  is  disloyal.  If  he  is  ambitious  he  is  ambitious. 
If  he  is  good  he  is  good.  And  if  he  is  bad  he  is  bad.  In 
other  words,  they  labor  under  the  belief  that  the  moral 
qualities  are  constant  qualities  which  are  an  inseparable 
part  of  a  human  being  as  scales,  fur,  and  hide  are  an 
inseparable  feature  of  the  fish,  the  dog,  and  the  elephant ; 
and  further,  that  no  matter  where  people  are  and  what 
they  are  doing,  their  moral  qualities  are  an  invariable 
part  of  their  nature.  Nothing  could  be  farther  from 
the  truth.  The  moral  qualities  are  not  absolute.  They 
are  not  blanket  qualities  which  cover  an  individual's 
entire  range  of  life  no  matter  under  what  circumstances 
he  may  live.    On  the  contrary,  moral  traits  are  relative, 


182      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

and  their  nature  depends  upon  a  very  wide  variety  of 
external  economic,  social  and  bodily  conditions.^ 

With  all  these  qualifications  and  distinctions 
before  ns,  we  must  necessarily  speak  of  tempera- 
mental traits  with  considerable  reserve.  Trait- 
terms  for  these  aspects  of  character  are  abundant, 
but  knowledge  concerning  their  elementariness, 
their  independence,  and  their  mutual  relations  is 
still  to  be  acquired.  Using  these  various  terms, 
then,  with  a  vagueness  proportionate  to  our  un- 
derstanding, what  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
measurement  of  those  characteristics  to  which 
they  are  intended  to  refer?  What  advance  is  to 
be  reported  beyond  the  loosely  organized  tradi- 
tional methods  described  and  criticized  in  earlier 
sections! 

The  concrete  rating  scales,  utilizing  personal 
specimens  or  graphic  devices  such  as  those  advo- 
cated by  Scott,  Miner,  the  Committee  on  Classifi- 
cation of  Personnel  in  the  Army,  and  others,  we 
have  already  had  occasion  to  describe.  These, 
however,  do  not  constitute  definite  methods  of 
diagnosis  or  measurement.  They  are,  instead, 
methods  of  seciiring  more  systematic  and  con- 
sistent reports  of  the  subjective  impressions  of 

1  Link.   Employment  Psychology,  p.  203. 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      183 

associates.  They  do  not  contribute  information 
not  already  available  in  testimonial  reports,  al- 
though they  may  lend  definition  and  uniformity 
to  this  evidence.  Efforts  to  approach  more  closely 
to  the  technic  of  test  procedure  may  best  be 
presented  by  brief  summaries  of  representative 
studies.  Such  surveys  are  given  in  the  following 
paragraphs,  followed  by  a  general  statement  of 
the  present  status  of  prognostic  and  diagnostic 
methods  in  this  field. 

The  Psychoneurotic  Iistentory 

An  interesting  method  has  been  devised  by 
Woodworth  in  the  effort  to  secure  an  index  of  the 
individual's  ** emotional  stability,''  balance,  or 
freedom  from  tendencies  that  predispose  to  nerv- 
ous breakdown.  An  inventory  of  complaints  or 
difficulties  is  provided,  in  the  form  of  questions  to 
be  answered  by  ^*Yes"  or  *^No.*'  Each  question 
relates  to  some  tendency,  habit,  condition,  experi- 
ence, trait,  or  antecedent  which,  if  answered  in  a 
particular  manner,  specified  in  the  scoring  card, 
indicates  the  individual  to  be  *^ peculiar"  in  that 
respect.  To  be  peculiar  in  this  sense  is  to  have  the 
trait  which  most  people  lack  or  to  lack  that  which 
most  have.    The  immediate  interest  of  the  inven- 


184      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

tory  is  not  in  the  particular  items  reported,  but 
rather  in  their  number.  The  average  or  normal 
individual  has  of  course  a  certain  number  of  *' pe- 
culiarities/' College  students  and  white  army  re- 
cruits, for  example,  were  found  to  have  an  aver- 
age of  about  ten  such  peculiarities,  the  largest 
possible  score  being  over  one  hundred.  Negro 
recruits  were  found  to  have  larger  scores  than 
white  recruits,  twice  as  many  in  fact.  Soldiers 
with  nervous  disorders  were  found  to  give  still 
higher  scores,  the  averages  diffe»ing  for  various 
types  of  mental  and  nervous  complaint.  In  one 
condition  the  average  score  of  men  in  a  certain 
hospital  before  the  armistice  was  as  high  as  forty 
points,  and  individuals  with  as  many  as  seventy- 
five  points  were  sometimes  found. 

This  questionnaire  method  of  indexing  the  de- 
gree of  wholesomeness,  the  lack  of  **  peculiarity '' 
in  nervous  and  mental  health,  we  may  call  the 
Psychoneurotic  Inventory.  It  is  now  being  im- 
proved, adapted,  and  more  fully  tried  out,  in  the 
hope  that  there  may  develop  from  it  a  useful 
ijieans  of  expressing  a  very  important  tempera- 
mental characteristic.  The  inventory,  in  one  of 
its  early  forms,  has  been  reproduced  with  Pro- 
fessor Woodworth's  permission,  in  the  writer's 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      185 

book,  The  Psycliology  of  Functional  Neuroses. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  in  the  use  of  such 
an  inventory,  by  others  than  the  individual  con- 
cerned, is  the  degree  to  which  the  replies  vary 
with  the  motivation  of  the  occasion.  Scores  made 
by  neurotic  soldiers  after  the  armistice  were  strik- 
ingly lower  than  were  those  from  similar  patients 
before  this  event.  The  change  in  motivation  from 
one  toward  invalidism  to  one  toward  recovery 
and  discharge  produced  a  more  optimistic  render- 
ing, not  only  of  present  status  but  even  of  the 
facts  of  personal  history.  The  method  is  essen- 
tially that  of  self -estimation,  and  the  liability  of 
self-estimates  to  distortion  we  have  already  had 
occasion  to  consider. 

The  Significance  of  Handwriting 

Various  psychologists  have  subjected  handwrit- 
ing to  analysis  and  trial,  in  the  endeavor  to  find 
in  the  characteristics  of  an  individuaPs  graphic 
performance  some  indication  of  more  general 
trends.  It  is  clear  that  the  detailed  rules  of 
graphologists  and  of  chirographic  systems  lead 
nowhere.  They  are  dogmatically  stated  and  with- 
out verifiable  foundation.  Hull  and  Montgomery 
eubmitted  ten  of  the  typical  traditional  grapholo- 


186      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTER 

gical  criteria  to  test,  by  comparing  these  details 
of  handwriting  with  combined  judgments  of  asso- 
ciates on  the  traits  professedly  indicated.  The 
correlations  were  only  such  as  might  result  from 
chance  arrangements.  But  such  graphologists  as 
have  submitted  to  objective  test,  as  in  Binet's 
study,  for  example,  seem  to  be  more  accurate  than 
are  their  systems.  Binet  found  that  amateurs 
and  professional  graphologists  alike  showed  more 
than  chance  success  in  indicating  the  relative  in- 
telligence of  the  writers  of  paired  specimens. 
Even  in  judging  their  relative  morality  the  suc- 
cesses were  more  frequent  than  chance  would  pro- 
duce, and  Binet  was  led  to  suggest  that  hand- 
writing might  yet  be  shown  to  afford  valuable  in- 
formation in  character  diagnosis. 

The  most  elaborate  studies  in  this  field  are  those 
of  Downey,  who  finds  various  significant  relations 
between  certain  features  of  the  handwriting  pat- 
tern and  the  more  general  pattern  of  the  individ- 
ual's mental  and  motor  attitudes.  On  the  basis 
of  her  experimental  findings,  Downey  has  formu- 
lated a  series  of  twelve  tests,  designated  the  **Will 
Profile ' '  method,  most  of  the  tests  in  which  utilize 
handwriting.     ''The  series  includes  speeded,  re- 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      187 

tarded,  disguised,  blocked,  and  automatic  hand- 
writing, slow  and  rapid  imitation  of  script,  and 
speeded  writing  in  a  restricted  space.  In  many 
cases  the  reaction  from  this  set  of  tests  is  some- 
what definitely  patterned.  A  relatively  high  score 
on  the  first  four  tests  indicates  a  quick,  flexible 
reaction;  on  the  second  four  traits,  it  suggests 
an  aggressive  reaction;  on  the  last  four,  a  delib- 
erate, methodical,  careful  reaction. ' ' 

Through  comparing  test  results,  in  an  experi- 
mental manner,  with  known  or  estimated  personal 
types,  this  author  is  led  to  believe  that  the  *^  Will- 
Profile''  *^has  considerable  characterological  sig- 
nificance and  that  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  not 
only  in  getting  the  general  temperamental  pattern 
of  an  individual  but  also  in  determining  the  spe- 
cific combination  of  traits.''  In  conjunction  with 
intelligence  tests  *4t  certainly  affords,  in  many 
situations,  a  basis  for  conservative  prophecy." 
This  ^'Will-Profile"  method,  based  mainly  on 
handwriting  and  its  characteristic  patterns,  is  now 
being  tried  out  by  other  psychologists,  and  until  it 
has  stood  the  test  of  trial,  criticism  and  modifica- 
tion, its  value  in  character  diagnosis  cannot  finally 
be  judged. 


188      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Tests  of  Aggressiveness 

Another  investigator,  on  the  trail  of  character 
traits,  is  Moore,  who  has  tried  out  a  variety  of 
devices.  One  set  of  tests  advocated  by  him  is  for 
the  measurement  of  ** aggressiveness.''  The 
series  includes  tests  of  eye  control  in  personal  in- 
terview; distraction,  while  adding,  by  staring,  by 
electric  shock,  by  a  snake ;  and  association  respon- 
ses to  certain  critical  stimulus  words.  Use  of  the 
method  with  college  students  leads  him  to  ^*  believe 
that  this  test  approximates  a  true  measurement  of 
aggressiveness  more  nearly  than  does  the  Army 
Alpha  examination  approximate  the  measurement 
of  intelligence." 

The  unaggressive  subjects,  while  adding  a 
standard  series  of  numbers  mentally,  were  three 
times  as  likely  as  the  aggressive  ones  to  be  con- 
siderabl}''  distracted  by  staring  or  by  the  presence 
of  a  snake,  and  more  liable  to  distraction  by  elec- 
tric shock.  The  very  aggressive  men  were  four 
times  as  likely  to  be  positive  and  definite  in  their 
responses  to  ** enterprise''  and  ^* success,"  twice 
as  likply  to  give  an  energetic  type  of  response  to 
*^ company";  and  only  one-fourth  as  likely  to  re- 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      189 

spond   definitely   and  vividly  to   '' danger ''   and 
*' death/'  as  the  very  unaggressive  men. 

The  most  important  test,  that  of  eye  control, 
counts  for  one-half  of  the  total  possible  score. 
In  this  test  the  candidate  is  ^  ^  required  to  perform 
a  somewhat  difficult  series  of  mental  additions 
while  constantly  returning  the  fixed  gaze''  of  the 
examiner.  He  is  instructed  that  ^*  under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  he  let  his  gaze  wander  from 
that  of  the  man  facing  him."  While  the  subject 
works  at  addition,  count  is  made  of  the  number 
of  times  his  gaze  wanders  and  his  eyes  leave  those 
of  the  examiner.  College  men,  chosen  by  asso- 
ciates and  faculty  for  estimated  aggressiveness, 
show  ten  times  as  much  eye  control  as  do  those 
similarly  chosen  for  lack  of  this  trait.  The  median 
score  of  the  aggressive  group  is  ^  ^no  movements ' ' ; 
that  of  the  unaggressive  group  is  ^'five  move- 
ments." The  thirteen  aggressive  men  made  a 
total  of  only  six  movements;  the  thirteen  unag- 
gressive made  a  total  of  seventy-two  movements. 

' '  Thus  the  simple  behavioristic  fact  of  the  abil- 
ity to  look  another  person  in  the  eye  seems  to  have 
such  a  high  significance  regarding  the  presence 
or  absence  of  aggressiveness  as  to  warrant  giving 
it  an  extremely  prominent  place  in  any  scoring 


190      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

method  devised  as  a  measure  of  this  trait.  The 
correspondence  is  in  fact  so  close  as  to  justify  the 
generalization  that  a  stop  watch  and  a  pair  of 
fixed  eyes  are  the  only  indispensable  laboratory 
equipment  necessary  for  estimating  roughly  the 
degree  of  aggressiveness  in  at  least  four-fifths  of 
the  subjects/' 

Queries  and  objections  will  surely  occur  to  the 
reader's  mind  in  considering  the  use  of  such  a 
set  of  tests,  and  these  difficulties  will  emphasize 
the  extraordinary  obstacles  encountered  by  any 
attempt  to  find  valid  measures  of  temperamental 
character  traits.  Thus  the  tendency  to  stare  at 
a  companion  or  at  a  speaker  may  be  one  of  the 
partial  facts  that  leads  one's  fellows  to  classify 
him  as  aggressive.  Part  of  the  correlation  with 
the  staring  test  would  then  be  spurious.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  have  insisted  that  character  is 
what  it  manifests  itself  to  be,  and  if  the  shifty 
eye  really  marks  a  man  as  a  weakling  in  the  eyes 
of  his  fellows  it  is  well  to  single  this  factor  out  of 
the  total  impression  and  to  take  diagnostic  advan- 
tage of  it.  A  man's  reputation  is  not  nearly  so 
remote  from  his  character  as  the  copy  books 
would  have  us  believe. 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      191 

The  Association  Methods 

A  type  of  association  test,  similar  to  that  given 
as  an  example  of  the  method  of  Response  Values, 
in  Chapter  VII,  has  been  used  by  several  investi- 
gators, in  the  hope  that  it  might  significantly  re- 
veal the  characteristic  intellectual  and  emotional 
attitudes  of  the  persons  tested.  In  place  of  scor- 
ing the  responses  according  to  the  frequency  with 
which  they  are  given  by  others,  notice  is  taken  of 
the  nature  of  the  relation  between  stimulus  word 
and  reaction  word.  On  the  basis  of  these  relations 
several  *' types  ^'  of  reactors  have  been  described. 
Thus  Jung  insists  that  the  characteristic  associa- 
tion responses  of  different  people  in  such  a  test 
do  not  really  distinguish  intellectual  types,  but 
rather  emotional  state.  *' Educated  test  persons 
usually  show  superficial  and  linguistically  deep 
rooted  associations,  whereas  the  uneducated  form 
more  valuable  associations  and  often  of  ingenious 
significance.  This  behavior  would  be  paradoxical 
from  an  intellectual  viewpoint.  The  meaningful 
associations  of  the  uneducated  are  not  really  the 
product  of  intellectual  thinking,  but  are  simply  the 
results  of  a  special  emotional  state.  The  whole 
thing  is  more  important  to  the  uneducated,  his 


192      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

emotion  is  greater  and  for  that  reason  he  pays 
more  attention  to  the  experiment  than  the  edu- 
cated person,  and  that  is  why  his  associations 
are  more  significant.'' 

Jung  then  points  out  several  types  or  sub-types. 
There  is  said  to  be  an  objective  type,  with  undis- 
turbed and  usual  reactions,  and  a  complex  type 
with  many  disturbances  occasioned  by  special 
emotional  complexes  or  sore  points.  There  is  a 
definition  type  described  which  *^  consists  in  the 
fact  that  the  reaction  always  gives  an  explana- 
tion or  a  definition  of  the  content  of  the  stimulus 
word.''  Persons  belonging  to  this  type  are  said 
to  wish  to  be  more  than  they  are,  and  such  reac- 
tion tendencies  are  said  to  characterize  stupid  per- 
sons but  also  persons  who  are  not  stupid  but  have 
an  *  intelligence  complex"  and  are  fearful  of 
being  thought  stupid.  In  another  suggested  type, 
the  predicate  type,  it  is  not  the  intellectual  but 
the  emotional  significance  of  the  stimulus  word 
that  is  prominent  in  the  response,  and  reaction 
words  indicating  strong  personal  evaluation  occur. 
*  *  Just  as  the  definition  type  really  conceals  a  lack 
of  intelligence,  so  the  excessive  emotional  expres- 
sion conceals  or  overcompensates  an  emotio;aal 
deficiency,"  says  Jung. 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPEEAMENT      193 

The  *' predicate*'  type  of  response  in  such  free 
association  tests  has  also  been  called  the  *' egocen- 
tric** type.  '*The  number  of  these  *  egocentric* 
associations,**  says  Wells,**  ^  *4ias  been  thought, 
with  reason,  to  bear  a  peculiar  relation  to  the  sub- 
ject *s  general  personality.  *  *  ^  *  In  normal  persons, 
from  15  to  45  per  cent  of  associative  responses 
belong  to  this  group.  Single  series  have  been 
taken  with  as  low  as  2  per  cent  and  as  high  as  60 
per  cent ;  but  the  number  of  these  is  a  fairly  con- 
stant attribute  of  the  individual.'*  Excessive 
egocentric  responses  are  believed  to  indicate 
either  a  specific  or  a  general  maladjustment  in  the 
individual  *s  affective  or  instinctive  life,  and  there- 
fore to  signify  a  lack  of  temperamental  balance. 
Wells  has  reported  interesting  experiments  de- 
signed to  test  out  this  belief,  and  concludes  that 
his  general  results  **are  consistent  with  the  view 
that  the  egocentric  association  type  indicates  a 
greater  *  loading*  of  the  experiment  with  atfect; 
and,  as  the  affect  is  there  to  be  loaded,  it  is  evi- 
dently not  taken  care  of  elsewhere  in  the  person- 
ality.** 

In  similar  ways  the  association  test  has  been 
used  by  many  investigators  as  giving  a  possible 


2  F.  L.  Wells.   Mental  Adjustments,  p.  261  ff. 


194      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

clue  to  temperamental  traits — cheerfulness  or 
gloominess  as  indicated  by  the  predominance  of 
pleasant  or  unpleasant  associations;  objective 
attitude  or  introversion  as  indicated  by  the 
relative  numbers  of  common  and  individual  reac- 
tions ;  the  relative  strength  of  instincts  and  inter- 
ests, as  indicated  by  the  speed  of  reaction  to  cer^ 
tain  words,  the  vividness  of  certain  responses,  and 
similar  criteria.  However  suggestive  these  re- 
sults may  be  in  striking  cases  of  mental  disorder, 
and  however  truly  they  may  reveal  the  special 
mental  set  or  attitude  taken  by  the  subject  on  the 
occasion  of  the  experiment,  the  advocates  of  the 
verbal  association  technic  are  still  far  from  pro- 
viding measures  of  temperament.  But  many  psy- 
chologists still  look  for  definite  advance  in  the 
application  of  this  method.  In  recent  work  for 
example,  by  specialists  in  the  use  of  the  method 
in  various  forms,  it  is  held  to  be  *4n  the  fore- 
most rank  among  the  methods  of  individual  psj^- 
chology,"  and,  in  one  of  its  forms  to  give  *' per- 
haps the  best  objective  correlate  of  temperament 
at  present  to  hand."  But  this  after  all,  in  the 
Ught  of  our  consideration  of  the  validity  of  other 
methods  of  temperamental  diagnosis,  caimot  be 
considered  immoderate  praise. 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      195 

Measurements  of  Suggestibility 

That  people  differ  in  the  readiness  with  which 
their  conclusions  are  influenced  by  the  opinions 
or  suggestions  of  others,  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation.  For  this  characteristic  the  term 
** suggestibility^^  is  often  employed.  Stern  has 
defined  this  tendency  as  *^the  imitative  assump- 
tion of  a  mental  attitude  under  the  illusion  of  as- 
suming it  spontaneously.  ^ '  "What  is  meant  by  sug- 
gestibility, in  this  sense  then,  is  not  willingness 
to  be  convinced  by  adequate  evidence,  openness 
to  argument  and  reason,  but  what  Whipple  has 
called  **  uncritical  acceptance  of  a  notion,  usually 
with  the  implication  that  the  suggested  individual 
is  unaware  that  his  ideas  have  been  thus  affected.*' 
Many  tests  involving  suggestibility  of  this  kind 
have  been  devised,  in  which  through  some  verbal, 
gestural  or  circumstantial  suggestion,  the  individ- 
ual is  led  to  react  otherwise  than  he  would  if  left 
to  himself.  Several  investigations  have  employed 
such  tests,  in  the  endeavor  to  determine  whether 
or  not  degree  of  suggestibility  is  a  general  charac- 
teristic ;  whether,  that  is,  it  is  present  in  something 
like  equal  degree  in  all  of  an  individual 's  conduct. 
The  outcome  of  these  investigations  is  with  great 


196      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTEH 

uniformity  of  a  negative  sort.  Individuals  differ 
in  any  given  suggestibility  test,  but  their  differ- 
ences are  not  carried  over  to  other  tests  as  fixed 
personal  differences.  In  other  tests  they  differ 
again,  but  in  new  ways  and  to  quite  new  degrees. 
The  tendencies  underlying  suggestibility  seem 
then  to  be  specific  to  the  situation  in  hand;  they 
characterize  the  individual  under  special  circum- 
stances rather  than  the  individual  as  a  person. 
Diligent  search  and  experiment  have  not  succeeded 
therefore  in  discovering  any  tests  that  can  be 
said  to  measure  the  general  suggestibility  of  in- 
dividuals, for  such  a  trait  does  not  seem  to  exist. ^ 

Detecting  Moods  and  Emotions 

Washburn  and  her  students,  in  seeking  for  indi- 
cations of  moods  or  temperaments  of  cheerful- 
ness and  depression,  employed  the  following  in- 
structions in  a  modified  association  test :  **When 
I  pronounce  a  word  to  you,  observe  what  idea  that 
word  first  calls  to  your  mind  and  report  whether 
it  is  a  pleasant  or  an  unpleasant  idea.  If  it  seems 
neither  pleasant  nor  unpleasant,  but  indifferent, 

s  Interesting  descriptions  of  typical  tests  involving  suggestion 
a,ie  to  be  found  in  Whipple's  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests, 
and  in  Brown's  Individual  and  Sex  Differences  in  Suggestibility. 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      197 

continue  thinking  until  either  a  pleasant  or  un- 
pleasant idea  is  suggested,  and  report  what  it  is.'* 
Having  determined,  under  the  conditions  of  the 
experiment,  the  average  tendency  to  report  pleas- 
ant ideas  for  the  series  of  stimulus  words,  devia- 
tions from  this  average  were  used  to  indicate  ten- 
dencies toward  cheerfulness  or  depression.  Com- 
parison of  such  results  with  estimates  by  intimate 
associates  gave  definite  positive  correlations.  This 
promising  lead  is  reported  as  now  undergoing  the 
further  investigation  which  it  requires  before  its 
general  diagnostic  value  is  known. 

A  series  of  ^ve  tests  intended  to  indicate  ten- 
dencies toward  emotional  reactions  and  idiosyn- 
crasies ill  this  respect  has  been  employed  by 
Pressey.  The  subject  is  required  first  to  cross 
out  the  w^ords  in  lists  provided,  which  name  un- 
pleasant things,  and  to  indicate  in  each  line  which 
word  is  most  unpleasant.  The  number  of  unpleas- 
ant words  and  the  number  of  most  unpleasant 
words  not  so  marked  by  most  people,  are  taken 
to  indicate  tendency  to  emotionalize  and  to  be 
emotionally  peculiar.  Crossing  out  irrelevant 
words  inserted  in  dull  and  exciting  passages  of 
reading  matter,  is  used  to  give  a  measure  of  the 
tendency  to  absorption  in  the  more  exciting  pass- 


198      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

age.  In  lists  of  acts  of  varying  degrees  of  social 
sanction,  the  **  worst  ^'  acts  and  the  *'most  com- 
mon'^  acts  are  to  be  indicated.  Deviation  from 
the  common  responses  is  used  as  a  measure  of 
moral  discrimination  and  experience.  A  modified 
form  of  the  free  association  test  gives  a  measure 
of  the  tendency  to  select  common  associates.  A 
test  for  memory  of  emotional  and  unemotional 
words  used  in  the  preceding  tests  gives,  finally, 
a  measure  of  ** emotional  memory."  This  test 
is  still  in  very  tentative  form,  and  its  value  there- 
fore undetermined. 

Genekal  Conclusions 

A  variety  of  other  devices  might  be  cited  as  hav- 
ing been,  in  one  form  or  another,  used  in  the 
attempt  to  measure  or  analyze  or  identify  tem- 
peramental traits.  Self-analysis  charts,  some- 
times with  roughly  quantitative  scores  suggested ; 
graphic  schemes  for  the  visual  portrayal  of  rela- 
tive prominence  of  different  traits  as  thus  esti- 
mated; questionnaires,  directing  attention  and 
comment  to  what  are  supposed  to  be  significant 
indications  of  interests  and  attitudes;  lists  of 
interests  and  activities,  for  checking  or  for  serial 
arrangement ;  analysis  of  dreams,  with  the  intent 


DIAGNOSIS  OF  TEMPERAMENT      199 

to  discover  the  trends  and  motivations  of  the 
individuaPs  thought;  estimates,  by  acquaintances, 
of  the  individual 's  possession  of  specified  charac- 
teristics; rating  scales  for  more  systematic  ex- 
pression of  such  personal  estimates;  dogmatic 
inference  from  physical  structure  or  contour  to 
temperamental  quality;  and  finally,  the  various 
traditional  methods  which  we  have  considered  in 
preceding  chapters;  these  indicate  the  variety  of 
technics  often  utilized  for  temperamental  diag- 
nosis. The  instances  we  have  surveyed  consti- 
tute some  of  the  more  definitely  formulated  and 
experimentally  conceived  endeavors. 

On  the  whole  then  it  is  clear  from  the  survey 
given  that  the  measurement  of  temperamental 
traits  is  still  in  a  preliminary  experimental  stage. 
Many  aspects  of  human  character  need  no  longer 
be  merely  judged,  no  longer  merely  guessed  at 
by  traditional  technics.  General  competence 
or  intelligence,  mental  maturity,  several  special 
aptitudes,  numerous  trade  skills,  educational 
status  and  accomplishment,  various  types  of  voca- 
tional fitness,  range  of  information  in  various 
fields,  can  be  objectively  measured  either  in  all  or 
in  some  of  their  features.  Until  the  diagnosis  of 
temperament  has  passed  through  its  earlier  ex- 


200      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

perimental  stages,  the  moral  and  social  qualities, 
the  interests,  emotional  dispositions,  the  attitudes 
and  the  volitional  and  instinctive  characteristics, 
must  continue  to  be  estimated  in  traditional  ways. 
But,  as  we  have  seen,  even  the  best  of  these  meth- 
ods admits  of  improved  technic  and  more  sys- 
tematic application.  The  contribution  of  science 
toward  the  art  of  judging  human  character  can- 
not be  limited  to  the  devising  of  tests  and  meas- 
ures. Until  that  distant  day  when  objective  meth- 
ods of  diagnosis  may  be  available  for  all  the 
interesting  features  of  the  complex  human  per- 
sonality, science  is  under  the  obligation  of  sub- 
mitting even  the  roughest  traditional  methods  to 
constructive  criticism.  Even  when  cripples  can- 
not be  cured,  it  is  the  task  of  science  to  improve 
the  crutch. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PSYCHOGRAPHIC  METHODS 

In  the  literature  of  vocational  psychology  spe- 
cial consideration  has  been  given  to  the  *  individ- 
ual psychograph ' '  and  to  the  **  vocational  psycho- 
graph. '^  By  the  former  was  meant  the  attempt 
to  give  a  full  account  of  the  mental  characteristics 
of  a  particular  person,  as  in  the  studies,  by  Tou- 
louse, of  such  distinguished  men  as  Zola  and  Poin- 
care.  By  the  latter  term  was  meant  what  is  now 
more  commonly  called  *'job  analysis/^  In  more 
recent  developments  the  term  ' '  psychograph ' '  has 
been  used  especially  to  designate  a  particular  an- 
alytic and  graphic  method  of  exhibiting  the  meas- 
ures of  an  individual  in  some  array  of  tests  or 
traits.  The  word  ^* profile''  has  also  been  used 
to  indicate  the  graph  resulting  from  such  a  chart- 
ing of  measures.  Some  consideration  of  the  na- 
ture, advantages  and  applications  of  the  method 
of  the  profile  or  psychograph  may  usefully  con- 
stitute the  subject  of  our  closing  chapter.  Refer- 
ence will  also  be  made  to  various  actual  cases  in 

201 


202      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

which  the  psychographic  method  has  been  em- 
ployed. 

PSYCHOGRAPHIC    TeCHNIC 

This  method  requires  that,  in  a  variety  of  tests 
or  traits,  measures  be  available  which  are  sus- 
ceptible of  expression  in  some  common  fashion  or 
in  identical  terms.  Any  of  the  standard  ^*  expres- 
sion units''  may  be  used,  with  the  usual  exception 
of  Original  Scores.  Thus  the  measures  of  all 
traits  may  be  expressed  in  Distribution  Units,  or 
in  Ranks  or  Percentile  Units,  or  in  Absolute  Units, 
or  in  Developmental  Units  such  as  mental  age,  or 
skill  level.  Such  measures  may  then,  in  fairly 
legitimate  ways,  be  compared,  combined,  averaged, 
and  otherwise  treated  in  quantitative  fashion. 
When  such  measures  are  available  a  simple  scheme 
of  graphic  portrayal  serves  many  useful  purposes. 

Vertical  lines  may  be  erected,  for  example,  along 
a  horizontal  base  line,  at  equal  distances.  Each 
such  line  or  column  may  stand  for  one  of  the  tests 
or  traits.  Along  one  of  the  verticals  may  be  laid 
off  a  scale  in  terms  of  the  units  to  be  adopted.  On 
each  of  the  remaining  verticals  may  then  be  indi- 
cated, by  cross  bar  or  other  indication,  the  degree 
or  amount  of  the  particular  trait,  or  the  Individ- 


PSYCHOGRAPHIC  METHODS         203 

uaPs  standing  in  it.  This  array  of  points,  some- 
times connected  by  lines,  gives  a  readily  appre- 
hended picture,  not  only  of  the  individual 's  general 
level  of  performance,  but  also  of  his  relative  status 
in  the  various  respects,  and  of  the  uniformity  or 
balance  of  his  equipment  in  the  features  measured. 

A  horizontal  line  drawn  straight  across  the 
chart  may  indicate  the  average  level  of  all  the 
characteristics,  a  summary  of  the  general  status. 
Another  such  line,  similarly  drawn,  may  be  used 
to  indicate  the  expected  or  normal  status.  The 
proximity  of  these  lines  will  thus  indicate  the  indi- 
viduaPs  general  approach  to  normal  or  expected 
status.  Their  relative  positions  will  indicate 
either  retarded  or  backward  condition,  on  the  one 
hand,  or  precocity  and  superior  status  on  the 
other.  A  third  line  may,  for  special  purposes,  be 
used  to  indicate  the  level  of  some  critical  devia- 
tion, a  deviation,  for  example,  of  sufficient  degree 
to  indicate  practical  inadequacy,  rejection,  promo- 
tion, institutional  care,  lack  of  testamentary  capac- 
ity, and  so  on. 

If  the  tests  or  traits  are  grouped  in  the  chart, 
on  the  basis  of  their  common  resemblances  or 
their  relation  to  certain  more  general  aspects  of 
personality,  subordinate  lines  may  be  drawn,  indi- 


204      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

eating  status  in  these  special  sections  or  divisions. 
In  case  it  is  possible  to  arrange  the  traits  or  tests 
in  a  hierarchy  on  one  or  other  basis,  the  general 
direction  or  slope  of  the  profile  line  also  becomes 
significant. 

The  degree  of  scattering  of  the  separate  scores 
or  measures  about  their  average  line  also  has  spe- 
cial significance  in  such  a  psychograph.  It  indi- 
cates the  symmetry  of  the  individual's  charac- 
teristics. The  theoretical  ^^  average  person'' 
would  be  at  the  expected  or  normal  line  in  all  the 
features  represented.  Instability  of  organiza- 
tion, unevenness  of  development,  or  marked  spe- 
cial aptitudes  and  disabilities  will  be  indicated  by 
appropriate  deviations  of  actual  from  expected 
or  average  status.  Marked  irregularity  or  scat- 
tering of  scores  is,  it  seems,  likely  to  be  associated 
in  many  cases  with  temperamental  peculiarities. 
It  may  also,  in  special  cases,  indicate  disease  or 
deterioration,  or  the  influence  of  particular  fac- 
tors such  as  drugs  or  such  as  highly  specialized 
practice. 

Typical  Psychographic  Profiles 
In  the  following  charts  are  shown,  by  way  of 


PSYCHOGEAPHIC  METHODS         205 

examples,  the  partial  psychographs  of  three  boys. 
All  three  boys  have  the  same  general  or  average 
competence.  In  terms  of  developmental  age  units, 
this  is  average  fifteen-year-old  capacity.  Rated  on 
the  miscellaneous  intelligence  scales,  all  three  will 
be  found  to  have  the  same  mental  age.^  But  the 
psychographs  show  the  abilities  of  the  three  boys 
to  be  quite  differently  patterned.  One  of  the  pro- 
files starts  high  and  gradually  falls.  Another 
starts  low  and  gradually  rises.  The  third  main- 
tains a  fairly  uniform  horizontal  course. 

The  tests  employed  in  these  three  cases  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  rough  order,  beginning  with  those 
that  involve  mainly  motor  behavior  and  the  han- 
dling of  concrete  objects,  actually  present,  through 
an  intermediate  region,  to  tests  involving  little 
overt  muscular  dexterity,  but  calling  essentially 
for  the  mental  manipulation  of  symbols,  relations, 
meanings  and  abstract  situations.  It  is  clear  that, 
so  far  at  least  as  present  status  is  concerned, 
these  boys  are  very  differently  endowed.  The 
one  excels  his  own  average  in  the  more  mechanical 

1  Percentile  or  distribution  units  are  in  general  preferable  for 
psychographic  purposes,  since  they  are  not  so  liable  to  misinter- 
pretation. But  since  for  some  of  tlie  tests  used  on  these  boys,  the 
only  norms  available  are  on  a  mental  age  basis,  that  method  is 
here  employed. 


Mental 

Grip 
Tapping 

Codrdma- 
it  on 

Profile 

Segum 
^,^Board^ 

Stenqmst 

Cavcella- 

..PSP. 

'Subst'itu- 

__twn^^ 

Community 

of  Ideas 

"'Word" 

^f^ding^ 
Completion 

Vooalulaiy 

-- 

... 

>  •  < 

... 

L5 

•  • 

>  mm 

D^C£ 

>  C 

I 

•    »— 

>•  • 

'  (J 

• 

-- 

j_5 

. . . 

- 

Cube 
Imitation 

^.. 

... 

... 

... 

-- 

-- 

-' 

... 

•  • 

-- 

Digit  Span 

Digits 
Reversed 
^'Verbal" 
Memory 

Opposites 
Calculation 
Directions 

... 

— 

» 

Fig.  2. — Boy  A.    Actual  age,  eight  years.    Mental  age,  fifteen 

years. 


206 


Mental 

Grip 
Tapping 

o>  Ni  CO  <dJ 

- 

-, 

— 

... 

- 

- 

~ 

... 

-- 

— 

; 

... 

"■" 

Coordma- 
ill  on 

Profile 

Seguin 
^_,Board^ 

Stengmst 

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207 


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208 


eighteen  years.  Mental  age,  fifteen 


I 


PSYCHOGRAPHIC  METHODS         209 

and  manipulative  skills;  another  excels  his  own 
average  in  more  abstract  and  verbal  operations; 
the  third  has  no  outstanding  aptitudes  nor 
disabilities,  but  is  near  his  average  in  all  the 
tests. 

For  purposes  of  immediate  selection  and  place- 
ment, the  facts  up  to  this  point  are  significant  and 
applicable.  From  the  point  of  view,  however,  of 
prediction  and  guidance  or  advice,  certain  further 
facts  are  of  prime  importance.  Although  these 
three  boys  have  equal  general  competence  at  the 
date  of  examination,  it  is  quite  certain  that  this 
will  not  always  be  the  case  with  them.  Note  that 
boy  A  is  only  eight  years  old,  whereas  B  is  15, 
or  nearly  twice  as  old  as  A,  and  C,  being  18,  is 
more  than  twice  as  old  as  A.  Our  general  knowl- 
edge of  mental  development,  verified  by  experi- 
mental data,  justifies  the  conclusion  that  A  is  only 
about  half  way  through  his  chronological  period 
of  growth;  that  B  has  just  about  completed  his 
growth  in  native  capacity,  and  that  C  has  already 
ceased  to  develop  in  this  respect.  The  profile  of 
C  therefore  indicates  his  permanent  level  of 
achievement;  B  may  change  somewhat  but  only 
slightly;  but  A  will  surely  grow  very  materially 
in  all  respects,  and  perhaps  unequally  in  the  vari- 


210      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTEE 

ous  skills  here  represented.  Boy  A,  in  other  words, 
is  precocious;  B  is  quite  an  average  boy;  C  is 
dull  and  backward.  These  facts  are  shown  by  the 
relative  positions  and  distances  of  the  lines  of 
average  competence  and  of  expected  achievement. 
These  samples  serve  briefly  to  illustrate  the  very 
useful  type  of  analysis  that  is  facilitated  by  the 
psychographic  method.  The  chart  is  of  course  not 
absolutely  necessary,  since  the  figures  tell  the 
same  story ;  but  the  graph  presents  the  facts  with 
a  concreteness  and  vividness  that  the  figures  lack 
to  all  except  those  adept  in  their  use. 

Uses  of  the  Profile  Method 

In  recent  years  the  profile  or  graphic  method 
has  often  been  adopted.  Stern,  many  years  ago, 
described  the  possibilities  of  some  such  technic. 
Rossolimo  later  used  the  graphic  device,  but  for 
presenting  data  which  were  not  expressed  in  ade- 
quately conceived  units.  Various  professional 
**characterologists''  have  employed  such  charts 
for  recording  personal  opinions  and  self-estimates 
in  pseudo-exact  terms.  Allport  has  used  a  similar 
method  for  portraying  personality  profiles  on  the 
basis  of  questionnaire  replies,  with  rough  steps 
of  classification.    Downey,  whose  **  Will-Profile ' ' 


PSYCHOGRAPHIC  METHODS         211 

method  we  have  considered  in  another  chapter, 
uses  the  graphic  device  for  portraying  and  analyz- 
ing the  pattern  of  the  various  handwriting  and 
other  reactions.  Seashore,  who  has  established 
a  series  of  quantitative  measures  for  certain  apti- 
tudes involved  in  musical  ability,  uses  the  graphic 
profile  to  show  the  general  level  and  symmetry 
of  these  measures  in  the  case  of  individuals  who 
have  been  examined.  Educational  psychologists, 
as  Courtis  for  example,  employ  a  somewhat  sim- 
ilar device  for  representing  the  balance  of  a  pu- 
piPs  achievements  in  various  school  subjects. 
Kitson  has  used  the  psychograph  as  a  concrete 
method  of  exhibiting  the  standing  of  college  stu- 
dents in  various  skills  and  traits.  Yerkes  and 
Cobb,  treating  separately  the  various  tests  which 
comprise  the  Alpha  intelligence  scale  used  in  the 
army,  have  shown  that  medical  men  in  the  mili- 
tary service  show  a  characteristic  profile  in  these 
tests.  The  method,  in  its  various  forms,  has  dis- 
tinct advantages  as  an  instrument  of  mental  an- 
alysis in  private  consultation,  clinical  examina- 
tion, psychopathological  research,  in  the  re-edu- 
cation of  inadequate  personalities,  and  in  experi- 
ments in  vocational  guidance  and  placement. 


212      JUDGING  HUIVIAN  CHARACTER 

The  full  utility  of  the  psychographic  method 
will  be  accomplished  only  when  technic  and 
norms  are  available  for  the  real  measurement  of 
a  much  larger  array  of  characteristics.  Such  a 
personality  picture  has  been  for  many  years  the 
goal  of  individual  psychology.  Kraepelin,  writ- 
ing nearly  thirty  years  ago,  expressed  the  need 
of  such  a  method  of  portraying  the  **  psychic  status 
praesens.'^  In  psychopathological  work,  with 
which  Kraepelin  is  chiefly  identified,  the  need  for 
more  adequate  exploration  of  the  personality  has 
always  been  real,  and  makeshifts  have  been  fre- 
quently lamented.  Kraepelin  made  many  fertile 
suggestions  toward  the  development  of  character 
measurements.  Thus  he  commented  on  the  Ber- 
tillon  system  of  identifying  an  individual  by  his 
physical  measurements  and  desired  to  develop  a 
similar  method  of  picturing  an  individual's  mind. 
He  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  exact  measure- 
ments, on  the  necessity  of  securing  norms  and 
measures  of  deviation,  and  he  attempted  to  indi- 
cate some  of  the  important  **  personal  disposi- 
tions" or  aspects  of  the  personality.  In  the  work 
of  Kraepelin  and  his  students  are  to  be  found  the 
beginnings  of  many  of  the  practical  applications 
of    experimental    technic,    graphic    record,    and 


PSYCHOGRAPHIC  METHODS        213 

statistical  procedure  in  character  study.  Even 
the  scales  for  the  measurement  of  educational 
accomplishment,  so  popular  in  recent  years,  are 
anticipated  in  Sommer's  impressionistically  ar- 
ranged scales  for  determining  ability  in  the  fun- 
damental processes  of  arithmetic. 

This  presentation  of  the  psychographic  meth- 
ods concludes  the  general  program  to  which  this 
book  is  committed.  We  have  reviewed  the  vari- 
ous traditional  methods,  indicated  in  some  detail 
their  various  inadequacies,  and  suggested  possi- 
ble methods  of  increasing  their  value  or  at  least 
of  estimating  their  validity.  The  greatest  hope 
seemed  to  lie  in  the  supplementary  or  substitutive 
contribution  of  more  accurate  data  through  the 
more  objective  means  of  mental  measurement.  A 
survey  of  some  of  the  principal  methods  of  mental 
measurement  disclosed  a  variety  of  technics  and 
problems  so  complex  as  to  be  sufficient  to  consti- 
tute the  subject  matter  of  a  definite  professional 
activity.  Readers  who  may  be  interested  in  a  more 
detailed  study  of  this  field  are  provided,  in  the 
Appendix,  with  a  representative  but  by  no  means 
complete  bibliography,  classified  under  the  various 
chapter  headings  of  the  book.  The  signal  impor- 
tance of  the  problem  of  judging  human  character 


214      JUDGING  HTOIAN  CHARACTER 

is  to  be  seen  in  the  way  in  which  all  manner  of  in- 
terests have  now  begun  to  cooperate  in  its  solu- 
tion. The  prospect  of  future  progress  in  this  field 
will  be  much  increased  by  the  continual  active  co- 
operation of  such  diverse  interests  as  those  repre- 
sented by  teachers,  administrators,  business  men, 
psychopathologists,  statisticians,  managers,  psy- 
chologists and  personnel  experts.  The  organized 
search,  in  our  own  generation,  for  fuller  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature,  may  result  in  as  great  a 
contribution  to  human  welfare  as  that  which  the 
past  generation  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
physical  world. 


APPENDIX  A 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
I.  General  Introduction 

HoLLiNGWORTH,  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology  (Apple- 
ton). 

HoLLiNGWORTH  and  PoFFENBERGER.  Applied  Psychol- 
ogy (Appleton). 

Link,  Henry  C.  Employment  Psychology    (Macmillan). 

Scott  and  Hayes.  Science  and  Common  Sense  in  Deal- 
ing with  Men  (Ronald) . 

II.  Letters  of  Application 

Andrews,  L.  G.  * '  A  Grading  System  for  Picking  Men, ' ' 
Sales  Management,  January,  1922. 

Personnel  System  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  Vol.  II,  p.  604- 
633  (Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C). 

Popfenberqer  and  Vartanian.  * '  The  Letter  of  Appli- 
cation in  Vocational  Selection, ' '  Jour.  Appl.  Psychol., 
March,  1922. 

[Walton,  Lillian  C.  *' Study  of  Judgments  of  Letters 
of  Application'^  (Masters*  Essay,  Dept.  of  Psychol- 
ogy, Columbia  University). 

Wells,  F.  L.  "Analysis  of  a  Successful  Agent,"  Life 
Association  News,  Vol.  XI,  No.  3. 

215 


216      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

III.  Human  Character  in  Photographs 

Anderson,  L.  D.  ''Estimating  Intelligence  by  Means 
of  Printed  Photographs, ' '  Jour.  Appl.  Psychol.,  June, 
1921. 

Hollingworth,  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology.  Chap- 
ter II. 

PiNTNER,  R.  "Intelligence  as  Estimated  from  Photo- 
graphs," Psychol.  Rev.,  July,  1918. 

IV.  Judging  One's  Own  Characteristics 

Allport,  F.  H.,  and  G.  W.  "Personality  Traits,  their 
Classification  and  Measurement,"  Jour.  Appl.  Psy- 
chol, April,  1921. 

Cattell,  J.  McK.  "Homo  Scientificus  Americanus," 
Science,  XVII. 

Hollingworth,  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology,  Chapters 
VI,  VII. 

Knight  and  Franzen.    "Pitfalls  in  Rating  Schemes," 

Jour.  Educ.  Psychol,  1922.  . 

Yerkes  and  LaRue.    Outline  for  the  Study  of  the  Self    -^ 
(Harvard  University  Press). 

V.  The  Personal  Interview 

Binet,  a.  "Nouvelles  recherches  sur  la  mesure  du 
niveau  intellectuel,  etc.,"  L'Annee  Psychol.  XVII, 
1911,  9:182. 

Link,  H.  C.     Employment  Psychology. 

Scott,  W.  D.  "Scientific  Selection  of  Salesmen," 
Advertising  and  Selling  Magazine,  October,  1915. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  217 

VI.  Recommendations  and  Testimonials 

FoLsoM,  J.  K.    ''Statistical  Study  of  Character,"  Fed. 

Sem.,  September,  1917. 
Hollingworth^  H.  L.    Vocational  Psychology,  Chapters 

VI,  VII. 
KoHS  and  Irle.  ' ' Prophenying  Army  Promotion,"  Jour. 

Appl.  Psychol,  March,  1920. 
NoRSWORTHY,  N.     ''On  the  Validity  of  Judgments  of 

Character,"  Essays  in  Honor  of  William  James. 
Simpson,  B.  R.,  "Reliability  of  Estimates  of  General 

Intelligence,"  Jour.  Educ.  Psychol.,  April,  1915. 
Slawson,     J.    "Reliability  of   Judgment   of   Personal 

Traits,"  M.A.  Essay,  Dept.  of  Psychology,  Columbia 

University,  1920. 
The  Personnel  System  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  2  vols.  (Govt. 

Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  Section  on  Rating 

Scales). 

VII.  Common  Sources  of  Error 

Achilles,  P.  S.  and  E.  M.  "Estimates  of  the  Military 
Value  of  Certain  Character  Qualities,"  Jour.  Appl. 
Psychol.,  December,  1917. 
^  HoLLiNGWORTH,  H.  L.  ' '  Experimental  Studies  in  Judg- 
ment," Arch,  of  Psychol.,  Columbia  University, 
No.  29. 

Miner,  J.  B.  "Evaluation  of  a  Method  for  Finely 
Graduated  Estimates  of  Abilities, ' '  Jour.  Appl.  Psy- 
chol., March,  1917. 

RuGG,  H.  0.  "Is  the  Rating  of  Human  Character  Prac- 
ticable?" Jour.  Educ.  Psychol,  November,  1921,  Feb- 
ruary, 1922. 


218      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Terman,    L.    M.    The    Measurement    of    Intelligence 

(Houghton  Mifflin). 
Thorndike,  E.  L.    ''A  Constant  Error  in  Psychological 

Ratings, 'Vowr.  Appl.  Psychol.,  March,  1920^ 

Vni.  Measuring  Mental   Competence 

Chapman,  J.  C.    Trade  Tests  (Holt). 

Mitchell  and  Ruger.  Psychological  Tests,  Bibliography 
(Bull.  IX,  Bureau  of  Educ.  Exper.,  New  York). 

Monroe,  DeVoss  and  Kelly.  Educational  Tests  and 
Measurements  (Houghton  Mifflin). 

PiNTNER,  R.    The  Mental  Survey  (Appleton). 

Pintner  and  Patterson.  A  Scale  of  Performance  Tests 
(Appleton). 

Pyle,  W.  H.  The  Examination  of  School  Children 
(Macmillan) . 

Stern,  W.  Psychological  Methods  of  Testing  Intelli- 
gence (Warwick  and  York). 

Terman.  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  (Houghton 
Mifflin). 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  ** Educational  Diagnosis,"  Science, 
January,  1913.  Mental  and  Social  Measurements 
(Teachers  College). 

Trabue  and  Stockbridge.  Measure  Your  Mind  (Double- 
day  Page). 

Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests 
(Warwick  and  York). 

Yoakum  and  Yerkes.  Army  Mental  Tests  (Holt). 

IX.  General  Competence  and  Special  Aptitude 
Bronner,  a.  C.  Special  Abilities  and  Disabilities  (Little, 
Brown). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  219 

HoLLiNGWOETH,  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology,  Chap- 
ter IX. 

Link,  H.  C.  Employment  Psychology,  Chapter  XII. 

McCall,  W.  a.  How  to  Measure  in  Education  (Macmil- 
lan). 

Seashore,  C.  E.  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent  (Silver, 
Burdett). 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  Educational  Psychology,  3  vols. 
(Teachers  College). 

X.  The  Method  of  the  Sample 

Chapman,  J.  C.   Trade  Tests  (Holt). 

Hoke  and  WhjSON.  How  to  Measure  (Macmillan). 

HoLLiNGWORTH,  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology,  Chap- 
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Murdoch,  K.  ^'Measurement  of  Certain  Elements  of 
Hand  Sewing,"  Teachers  College  Publications. 

Starch,  D.   Educational  Psychology, 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "Handwriting,"  Teachers  College 
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XL  The  Correlation  Methods 

Allen,  G.  L.  "A  Correlation  Between  Mental  Tests  and 
Manual  Aptitudes,"  Masters'  Essay,  Columbia  Uni- 
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Bregman,  E.  0.  "A  Study  in  Industrial  Psychology- 
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June,  1921. 


220      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

BuRTT,  H.  E.  ''Prof.  Muensterberg's  Vocational  Tests," 
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Appl.  Psychol,  March,  1920. 

Carney,  C.  S.  ''Some  Experiments  with  Mental  Teste  as 
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Carothers,  F.  E.  "Psychological  Examinations  of  Col- 
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DocKERAY  and  Isaacs.  '  *  Psychological  Research  in  Avia- 
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Flanders,  J.  K.  "Mental  Tests  of  a  Group  of  Employed 
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Henmon,  V.  A.  C.  "Air  Service  Tests  of  Aptitude  for 
Flying,"  Jour.  Appl.  Psychol.,  June,  1919. 

HoLLiNGV^oRTH^  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology,  Chap- 
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HoLLiNGWORTH  and  PoFFENBERGER.  Applied  Psychology, 
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Jones,  E.  S.  "The  Woolley  Test  Series  Applied  to  the 
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KiTSON,  H.  D.  "The  Scientific  Study  of  the  College 
Student,"  Psychol.  Mon.,  1917,  23,  No.  1. 

Link,  H.  C.  Employment  Psychology,  Part  I 

Marcus,  L.  "Vocational  Selection  for  Specialized 
Tasks, ' '  Jour.  Appl.  Psychol. 

Muscio,  B.  "Vocational  Guidance,"  A  Review  of  ike 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY  221 

OscHRiN,  E.  "Vocational  Tests  for  Retail  Saleswomen." 
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RuGG,  H.  0.  Statistical  Methods  in  Education, 

Rogers,  H.  W.  "  Psychological  Tests  for  Stenographers 
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Scott,  W.  D.  "Scientific  Selection  of  Salesmen,"  Ad- 
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Stratton,  McComas,  Coover  and  Bagby.  * '  Psychologi- 
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Terman,  L.  M.  "A  Trial  of  Mental  and  Pedagogical 
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Thorndike,  E.  L.  "Tests  for  Vocational  Selection," 
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XII.  Diagnosis  of  Temperament 

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222      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Brown,  W.  **  Individual  and  Sex  Differences  in  Sug- 
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Kent  and  Rosanofp.  "A  Study  of  Association  in  Insan- 
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McDougall,  Wm.  Social  Psychology. 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  223 

XIII.  The  Psychogbaphic  Methods 

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Courtis,  S.  A.  "Report  of  Second  Conference  on  Educa- 
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Downey,  J,  E.  ''The  Will  Profile,"  Univ,  of  Wyoming 
Bull.  XVI,  4,  1912. 

HoLLiNGWORTH,  H.  L.  YocoHondl  Psychology,  Chap- 
ter IV.  Psychology  of  Functional  Neuroses,  Chap- 
ters VIII,  XIV. 

KiTSON,  H.  D.  "The  Scientific  Study  of  the  College 
Student,"  Psych,  Mon.,  23,  No.  1,  1917. 

K^RAEPELIN,  E.  "Der  Psychologische  Versuch  in  der  Psy- 
chiatric," Psychologische  Arbeit  en,  1,  1894. 

Parker,  B.  "The  Psychograph  of  Rossolimo,"  Amer, 
Jour.  Insan.,  73,  1916. 

RossoLiMo,  G.  "Die  Psychologische  Profile,"  Klinik  f. 
psychische  u.  nervose  Krankheiten,  6,  1911,  Heft,  3, 
and  later  numbers. 

Seashore,  C.  E.  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent. 

Stern,  W.  Die  Differentielle  Psychologic,  1911. 

Stevens,  H.  C.  "A  Revision  of  the  Rossolimo  Tests," 
Titchener  Commem.  Vol.,  1917. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 

Yerkes  and  Cobb.  "Intellectual  and  Educational  Status 
of  the  Medical  Profession,  etc.,"  Bull,  of  Nat,  Bes, 
Council,  1,  8,  No.  8,  February,  1921. 


224     JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTEB 

Books  on  Statistical  Methods 

Brinton,  W.  C.   Graphic  Methods  for  Presenting  Facts. 
McCall,  W.  a.  How  to  Measure  in  Education. 
RuGG,  H.  0.  Statistical  Methods  in  Education. 
Secrist.  An  Introduction  to  Statistical  Methods. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.   Mental  and  Social  Measurements. 
Whipple,  G.  M.    Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 
Yule,  G.  U.  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Statistics. 


1 


APPENDIX  B 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Experiments  and  Laboratory  Exercises  are 
here  given  which  will  illustrate  and  clarify 
the  topics  and  methods  discussed  in  the 
foregoing  chapters.  The  author  finds  it 
instructive  and  convenient  to  use  these 
exercises  or  adaptations  of  them,  in  college 
and  university  courses  in  Mental  Measure- 
Tnent,  or  in  Vocational  and  Industrial 
Psychology,  or  in  Applied  Psychology.  For 
such  courses  the  present  book  serves  as  a 
convenient  elementary  text,  and  may  be 
supplemented  to  any  desirable  degree  by 
more  detailed  lectures  and  demonstrations, 
and  by  readings  or  reports  of  books  and 
articles  suggested  in  the  preceding  Bib- 
liography. 


225 


EXERCISE  I 

Letters  of  Applicatioit 

A  series  of  letters  of  application  for  some  position  may 
readily  be  secured,  in  various  ways.  Thus  a  business 
man  who  has  advertised  for  an  assistant,  a  newspaper 
that  has  run  classified  want  advertisements,  a  family  that 
has  advertised  for  a  housekeeper  or  servant,  a  school 
or  college  that  has  received  applications  for  admission, 
may  be  willing  to  provide  such  a  series  for  scientific  use. 
All  such  material  should  of  course  be  kept  strictly  con- 
fidential, and  used  only  for  experimental  purposes,  unless 
the  writers'  consent  to  the  use  of  their  letters  is  secured. 

With  the  letters  of  application  available,  choose  a  rep- 
resentative set  of  fifteen  letters.  Keep  each  letter  sepa- 
rate and  intact,  enclosed  in  its  envelope,  with  the  station- 
ery and  original  penmanship  carefully  preserved.  Place 
on  each  a  key  letter,  as  A,  B,  C,  D,  etc.,  which  will 
identify  the  letters  and  envelopes. 

Considering  the  position  for  which  the  writers  have 
applied,  select  four  important  traits,  which  should  be 
possessed  by  satisfactory  applicants  for  this  position. 
They  may,  for  example,  be  such  traits  as  Honesty,  Intel- 
ligence, Penmanship,  Tact,  Leadership,  Ambition,  Neat- 
ness, etc. 

Ask  ten  different  individuals  to  arrange  the  set  of 
fifteen  letters  in  an  order  of  merit  for  one  or  more  of 

226 


B 


C 


D 


EXERCISES  227 

these  traits,  placing  in  first  place  the  best,  in  second 
place  the  next  best,  etc. 

After  two  weeks  or  so  have  elapsed,  ask  the  same 
individuals  again  to  arrange  these  letters  for  the  same 
trait  or  traits. 

Now  prepare  a  table  of  results  similar  to  those  on 
pages  13-14  showing  the  amount  of  agreement  between 
different  judges  in  their  first  arrangement.  Find  the 
average  position  assigned  each  letter,  and  the  deviations 
of  the  ten  judges  from  this  average.  This  will  show, 
when  these  deviations  are  averaged,  how  much  the  judges 
tend  to  disagree  on  each  letter.  Averaging  all  of  the 
average  deviations  will  show  how  much  the  judges  tend 
to  disagree  on  the  trait  in  question. 

Do  the  judges  agree  more  closely  on  some  letters  than 
on  others  ?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  such  letters  ? 
Do  the  judges  agree  on  some  traits  more  closely  than  on 
others?    What  are  these  traits? 

Compare,  in  the  case  of  each  judge,  his  arrangements 
of  the  letters  for  a  given  trait  on  two  occasions.  In  what 
simple  way  can  you  get  a  measure  of  his  consistency,  in 
each  case  ?  Are  some  judges  more  consistent  than  others  ? 
Are  judges  in  general  more  consistent  on  some  traits  than 
on  others  ?  What  explanations  have  you  to  offer  for  the 
results?  How  do  your  results  compare  with  the  con- 
clusions presented  in  Chapter  II? 


EXERCISE  II 
Human  Chaeacter  in  Photographs 

Photographs  of  twelve  children  are  here  provided. 
Each  photograph  is  indicated  by  a  letter.  Arrange  the 
letters  in  a  column  alphabetically,  so  that  after  each 
letter  may  be  placed  numbers  indicating  the  position 
assigned  the  corresponding  photograph  by  each  of  sev- 
eral judges. 

Select  certain  interesting  character  traits  for  judg- 
ment, such,  for  example,  as  Humor,  Honesty,  Aggressive- 
ness, Intelligence,  etc.  If  Humor,  for  example,  is  se- 
lected, ask  various  persons  to  indicate  the  order  of  merit 
of  the  individuals  whose  photographs  are  shown,  ranking 
them  from  1  to  12,  Number  1  being  the  highest  in  the 
trait.  Number  2  the  next,  and  so  on.  In  this  way  judg- 
ments may  be  made  for  several  traits. 

When  several  judges  have  made  their  rankings,  make 
a  tabular  report  of  the  results,  showing  the  position  or 
rank  assigned  to  each  photograph  by  each  judge.  It 
will  now  be  possible,  by  various  arithmetical  or  statisti- 
cal procedures,  to  find  the  amount  of  agreement  among 
the  judges  on  each  of  the  various  traits.  Do  they  dis- 
agree more  in  estimating  some  traits  than  in  estimating 
others  ?  On  which  traits  is  the  agreement  greatest  ?  Does 
the  amount  of  agreement  have  any  necessary  relation 
to  the  correctness  of  the  judgments?  Are  some  of  the 
judges  more  representative  than  others,  that  is,  do  their 

228 


E 


r 


H 


EXERCISES  229 

judgments  agree  more  closely  with  the  average  or  com- 
bined rankings  by  all  the  judges? 

By  finding  the  average  position  assigned  to  each  photo- 
graph it  will  be  possible  to  learn  which  faces  are  judged 
to  indicate  the  highest  degree  of  the  various  traits,  and 
which  are  judged  to  indicate  lower  degrees.  Is  it  pos- 
sible to  point  out  any  characteristics  that  lead  .judges 
on  the  whole  to  characterize  a  face  as  possessing  or  lack- 
ing a  given  characteristic?  If  so,  what  explanation  of 
such  tendencies  are  you  inclined  to  suggest?  Do  these 
tendencies  have  any  bearing  on  the  actual  significance 
of  such  signs? 

In  the  case  of  Intelligence  it  is  possible  to  compare  the 
verdicts  of  the  judges,  either  separately  or  in  combina- 
tion, with  the  actual  facts.  All  the  individuals  whose 
photographs  are  here  given  have  been  given  intelligence 
tests,  and  it  is  possible  to  assign  to  each  the  actual  Mental 
Age  and  also  the  Intelligence  Quotient  (mental  age 
divided  by  chronological  age,  in  all  these  cases,  since  all 
are  less  than  sixteen  years  of  age.)  Compare  the  indi- 
vidual judgments  of  Intelligence,  and  also  the  combined 
judgments,  with  the  Mental  Ages  of  the  children.  What 
resemblance  is  found  between  judgments  and  this  meas- 
ure of  Intelligence?  Having  computed  the  Intelligence 
Quotient  of  each  child,  compare  the  judgments,  indi- 
vidual and  combined,  with  these  measures.  What  re- 
semblance is  found? 

How  reliably  or  accurately  is  Intelligence,  in  this 
instance,  estimated  from  the  photographs?  Does  com- 
bination of  the  verdicts  of  several  judges  lead  to  higher 
validity  than  that  characterizing  the  judgments  passed 
by  individual  judges  ?  How  do  the  results  compare  with 
those  giygii  in  Chapter  III? 


230      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHABACTER 
Data  foe  Expeeiment  with  Photogeaphs 


Chrono- 

Photograph* 

logical  Age 
10.0  years 

Mental  Age 

A   .. 

9.0  years 

B    .. 

12.0 

ti 

9.7    " 

C    . 

12.0 

a 

10.0    " 

D   .. 

15.0 

(( 

9.8    " 

Fi 

12.0 
14.0 

11 

8.6    " 

F    . 

7.6    " 

a  . 

4.0 

(( 

5.7    " 

H 

5.0 
10.0 

7.2    " 

I    . 

12.0     " 

J 

10.0 
7.0 

10.8    " 

K  . 

6.8    '' 

L    . 

16.0 

a 

12.5    " 

*  These  photographs  and  data  are  reproduced,  with  the  permission  of 
Prof.  Rudolph  Pintner,  from  his  article  entitled,  "Intelligence  as  Estimated 
from  Photographs,"  in  the  Psychological  Revieio,  Vol.  XXV,  No.  4,  July, 
1918,  pp.  286-296.  After  having  performed  this  experiment,  the  reader 
should  read  Pintner's  interesting  article.  The  present  writer  desires  hereby 
to  express  his  thanks  to  ProJ.  Pintner  and  to  the  Psychological  Review  for 
their  gracious  consent  to  the  use  of  these  materials  in  this  book. 


i«Bis|fe,       ,  ;|»fe. 


K 


i 


EXERCISE  III 

Judging  One's  Own  Characteristics 

This  experiment  requires  the  frank  and  conscientious 
cooperation  of  all  the  members  of  the  class  or  group. 
There  should  be  at  least  ten  individuals,  and  fifteen 
makes  a  still  better  number.  Of  course  the  larger  the 
group  the  more  reliable  the  results,  but  the  more  laborious 
the  mathematical  work  involved.  Such  an  experiment 
honestly  conducted  with  results  kept  confidential  so  far 
as  individual  cases  are  concerned,  can  be  made  to  throw 
interesting  light  on  individual  character. 

Select  a  few  interesting  trait-terms,  such  as  Intelli- 
gence, Aggressiveness,  Poise  or  Balance,  Humor,  Coop- 
erativeness,  Energy,  etc.  Agree  upon  a  concise  defini- 
tion of  each  trait-term,  and  discuss  these  definitions, 
with  illustrations,  so  that  all  the  individuals  have  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  working  conception  of  what 
the  trait-term  is  to  denote. 

Assign  to  each  individual  a  letter  designation,  as  A, 
B,  and  so  on.  Each  individual  prepares  his  own  report 
sheet,  but  hands  it  in,  marked  not  with  his  own  letter  but 
with  some  secret  key,  known  only  to  himself.  This  is 
for  indentification  and  return  of  the  report  sheets  at  a 
later  point. 

Each  individual  then  ranks  in  order  of  merit,  for 
each  of  the  traits  chosen,  all  members  of  the  group, 
including  himself.    Place  the  whole  array  of  individuals 

231 


232      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

in  a  complete  order,  assigning  no  two  persons  to  the 
same  rank.  Call  the  best  in  the  trait  Number  1,  the 
next  best  Number  2,  etc.  The  report  sheets  may  now 
be  collected  and  a  table  of  results  prepared,  showing 
for  each  individual  the  ranks  assigned  him  by  all  the 
members  of  the  group.  The  median  or  average  rank 
given  to  each  individual,  or  the  total  of  all  the  ranks 
assigned  him,  now  makes  it  possible  to  arrange  all  the 
members  of  the  group,  for  each  trait,  in  a  Final  Order, 
based  on  the  combined  verdicts  of  all  the  judges. 

Each  individual  now  recovers  his  report  sheets.  In 
the  Final  Order  he  has  been  given  a  rank  for  each  trait, 
and  this  rank  indicates  the  position  in  which  he  stands, 
according  to  the  combined  judgments  of  his  associates. 
Considering  each  trait,  the  individual  may  now  discover 
how  far  his  own  estimate  of  himself  departs  from  the 
position  assigned  him  in  the  Final  Order.  How  accu- 
rately does  he  judge  himself  in  each  trait?  Is  he  more 
nearly  correct  in  some  traits  than  in  others?  Does  he 
tend  to  over-estimate  or  to  under-estimate  himself?  Is 
this  direction  of  error  common  to  all  traits,  and  fairly 
equal  in  amount,  or  does  the  constant  error  of  self -estima- 
tion vary  with  the  trait  ?  By  tabulating  such  results  for 
all  the  individuals  and  taking  averages  of  the  tendencies, 
the  general  results  for  all  the  individuals  of  the  group 
may  be  derived.  How  do  these  general  results  compare 
with  those  described  in  Chapter  IV  ? 

If  Intelligence  was  included  among  the  traits  judged, 
intelligence  tests  may  be  taken  by  all  members  of  the 
group  and  their  scores  recorded.  All  individuals  may 
be  ranked  in  order  on  the  basis  of  these  scores.  How 
do  the  individual's  judgments  of  himself  accord  with  the 


EXERCISES  233 

results  of  the  objective  tests?  How  accurately  do  indi- 
viduals estimate  their  own  intelligence,  as  compared  with 
other  individuals  known  to  them? 

Carefully  preserve  all  these  records  for  use  in  a  later 
experiment. 


EXERCISE  IV 
The  Personal  Interview 

Decide  upon  some  appoiutment  or  position,  familiar  in 
its  general  character  to  all  members  of  the  class,  for 
which  candidates  are  to  be  interviewed.  Such  positions 
as  the  following  may  be  suitable  for  college  classes: 
editor  of  the  college  paper;  student  adviser  to  Fresh- 
pien  entering  the  college;  business  manager  of  the  ath- 
letic organization;  delegate  to  an  inter-collegiate  con- 
ference on  some  contemporary  question  of  college  life; 
recipient  of  a  prize  to  be  awarded  to  the  best  all-round 
college  student.  Current  affairs  in  the  college  will 
readily  suggest  some  definite  and  interesting  position  of 
this  general  character. 

Select  from  the  Freshman  class  ten  or  twelve  indi- 
viduals who  are  not  personally  known  to  the  members 
of  the  class,  and  secure  their  consent  to  participate  in  the 
experiment.  Each  member  of  the  class  now  constitutes 
himself  an  interviewer,  and  interviews  each  of  the  appli- 
cants in  turn,  observing  the  following  conditions : 

Separate  booths  or  rooms  should  be  available  for  each 
interviewer.  If  four  minutes  are  allowed  for  each  inter- 
view, the  whole  series  can  be  conducted  within  one  hour 
or  one  class  period.  At  a  signal  each  interview  promptly 
terminates  and  the  applicant  passes  to  the  next  inter- 
viewer, and  60  on  in  turn,  until  he  has  visited  each  inter- 
viewer. 

234 


EXERCISES  235 

Each  interviewer  is  allowed  to  conduct  his  interview 
in  whatever  way  seems  best  to  him,  but  at  the  end 
of  each  interview  he  must  record  his  impressions  of 
the  qualifications  of  the  candidate  in  such  a  fashion  that 
at  the  end  of  the  hour  he  can  assign  to  each  candidate 
some  score,  or  grade,  or  rank,  which  will  make  it  pos- 
sible to  arrange  all  the  applicants  in  an  order  of  merit 
on  the  basis  of  his  impressions.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  giving  two  candidates  the  same  rank.  If  it 
seems  desirable  to  the  instructor,  some  definite  system 
of  grading  or  scoring  may  be  agreed  upon,  and  adopted 
by  all  interviewers. 

The  results  from  all  interviewers  may  now  be  compiled 
in  tabular  form,  and  a  study  made  of  the  agree- 
ments and  disagreements.  A  Final  Order  may  be  de- 
rived, from  the  combined  verdicts,  and  each  interviewer 's 
estimates  may  be  compared  with  this  Final  Order.  How 
closely  do  the  interviewers  agree  ?  Are  some  interviewers 
more  representative  than  others,  that  is,  do  their  judg- 
ments accord  more  nearly  with  the  Final  Order? 

Each  interviewer,  or  particularly  representative  or 
non-representative  interviewers,  may  now  be  called  upon 
for  an  account  of  their  interview  method.  Upon  what 
criteria  did  they  base  their  judgments  ?  What  influences 
determined  their  verdicts?  What  special  difficulties 
were  encountered  in  attempting  to  make  such  ratings 
of  other  individuals  on  the  basis  of  brief  interviews. 

What  indications  are  there  that  combining  the  ver- 
dicts of  several  interviewers  gives  more  reliable  results 
than  those  secured  from  single  interviewers  chosen  at 


236      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

random?    If  some  judges  are  more  expert  or  representa- 
tive than  others,  is  there  any  way  of  finding  out  how 
they  come  to  possess  this  expertness?     What  are  the 
indications  in  the  present  instance? 
Preserve  all  records  for  use  in  a  later  experiment. 


EXERCISE  V 

Recommendations  and  Testimonials 

In  Exercise  3,  which,  has  already  been  performed  and 
recorded,  each  individual  estimated  not  only  his  own 
traits,  but  also  judged  the  degree  to  which  other  persons 
of  his  acquaintance  possessed  these  same  traits.  The 
data  already  accumulated  in  Exercise  3  may  now  be 
made  the  material  for  a  study  of  the  judgments  of  asso- 
ciates. 

Each  member  of  the  class  received  a  Final  Rank,  based 
on  the  combined  judgments  of  all  the  members  of  the 
class.  Taking  each  individual  in  turn,  for  a  given  trait, 
determine  the  Mean  Deviation  of  the  judges  from  this 
Final  Rank.  Do  the  judges  differ  more  in  estimating 
some  individuals  than  in  estimating  others?  Why? 
Determine  the  degree  of  deviation  in  this  manner  for  all 
the  traits.  Averaging  the  Mean  Deviations  gives  a 
measure  of  agreement  of  judges  on  each  trait.  Do  the 
judges  agree  more  closely  in  estimating  some  traits  than 
in  estimating  others?  How  do  these  results  compare 
with  those  given  in  Chapter  6  ?  If  a  hierarchy  of  agree- 
ment is  shown,  how  does  this  hierarchy  compare  with 
those  suggested  in  Chapter  6? 

Each  individual  should  now  classify  all  members  of 
the  class,  except  himself,  on  the  basis  of  the  degree  of 
his  acquaintance  with  them.  Three  degrees  may  con- 
veniently be  used,  such  as  Intimately  Acquainted,  Fairly 

237 


238      JUDGINQ  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

.Well  Acquainted,  Only  Slightly  Acquainted.  Consider 
now  your  own  estimates  of  these  individuals,  and  their 
degree  of  deviation  from  the  Final  Order  assigned  them. 
Does  degree  of  acquaintance  affect  the  accuracy  of  your 
judgments  of  your  associates? 

Each  individual's  judgments  of  the  group  may  be 
correlated  with  the  Final  Order,  thus  giving  a  measure 
of  his  judicial  capacity,  or  his  representative  character, 
or  his  agreement  with  the  consensus  of  opinion.  How 
do  individuals  differ  in  their  ''judicial  capacity"  as  thus 
described  ?  Does  the  individual  whose  verdicts  are  rep- 
resentative in  one  trait  also  tend  to  show  corresponding 
judicial  capacity  in  other  traits? 

Individuals  may  now  be  ranked  according  to  their 
''judicial  capacity"  in  a  given  trait,  and  also  according 
to  their  position  in  the  Final  Order  for  this  trait.  Is 
there  any  relation  between  possession  of  the  trait  in  high 
degree  and  ability  to  judge  that  trait  in  others?  How 
does  this  vary  with  the  trait,  and  upon  what  factors  do 
the  results  apparently  depend? 

Compare  the  abilities  of  all  the  individuals  in  (a)  esti- 
mating their  own  traits;  (b)  estimating  the  traits  of 
strangers  in  the  interview;  (c)  estimating  the  traits  of 
associates.  Are  the  representative  judges  in  the  one  case 
also  representative  in  the  other  cases?  What  correla- 
tions are  found  ?  Is  there  such  a  thing  as  general  judicial 
capacity  in  this  connection  ? 

Is  there  any  relation  between  the  ability  to  judge 
according  to  the  consensus  of  opinion  and  the  scores 
in  the  intelligence  tests  ? 

What  further  questions  of  interest  might  be  raised 
and  answered,  for  the  circumstances  in  question,  on  the 
basis  of  the  data  now  at  hand  ? 


EXERCISE  VI 

Rating  Scales 

The  following  experiment  illustrates  the  use  of  the 
** concrete  specimen''  rating  scales,  without  introducing 
the  factor  of  personalities.  The  same  general  principle 
may  be  utilized  in  judging  people,  and,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  instructor,  the  method  may  be  adapted  to  rating 
persons.  Modifications  of  the  method  which  involve  the 
principles  of  the  *' graphic"  rating  scales  may  also  be 
introduced  if  time  allows. 

Bating  Works  of  Fiction. — Each  individual  suggests 
the  qualities  which  a  work  of  fiction,  as  a  novel,  should 
possess.  Through  discussion,  several  essential  qualities 
are  agreed  upon.  Several  novels  with  which  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  are  acquainted  are  then  chosen  for 
rating. 

Each  individual  rates  each  book,  for  each  of  the  quali- 
ties, by  what  seems  to  him  to  be  the  best  method — thus  he 
may  assign  letter  grades,  per  cent  grades,  descriptive 
terms,  etc.  The  various  ratings  for  a  given  trait  are  then 
compared,  and  the  difficulties  and  ambiguities  encoun- 
tered by  the  use  of  such  heterogeneous  methods  are 
exhibited.  Attempts  may  bo  made  to  summate  the 
grades  assigned  to  a  given  book,  in  its  various  qualities, 
and  the  difficulties  of  such  summation  on  the  basis  of 
these  methods  of  grading  will  be  revealed. 

Each  individual  now  prepares,  for  each  trait,  a  eon- 

239 


240      JUDGING  HUMAN  CHARACTER 

Crete  specimen  scale,  after  the  following  manner :  Sup- 
pose the  quality  is  Realism,  this  being  defined,  by 
agreement,  to  mean  '*  fidelity  of  detail  to  the  real  condi- 
tions of  the  epoch  in  which  its  scenes  are  laid."  Select 
the  most  realistic  novel  of  your  acquaintance,  and  call 
it  A.  Now  select  the  least  realistic  novel  of  your  ac- 
quaintance and  call  it  E.  Select  some  novel,  C,  which 
stands  just  half-way  between  A  and  E  in  this  quality. 
Now  select  B  which  stands  mid-way  between  A  and  C, 
and  select  D  which  stands  mid-way  between  C  and  E 
Write  down  the  names  of  these  novels,  under  the  head- 
ing of  the  trait  in  question.  Make  similar  scales  for 
each  of  the  qualities  to  be  considered,  writing  out  the 
names  of  the  books  under  the  appropriate  quality  head- 
ings. The  same  books  need  not  of  course  appear  in  all  the 
scales.  Each  scale  is  to  be  made  up  independently  of 
the  others,  using  for  each  quality  all  the  books  you 
know,  as  possible  choices. 

Now  turn  to  the  books  to  be  graded  by  all  the  members 
of  the  class.  Taking  each  book  in  turn,  locate  it  in  the 
appropriate  scale  for  each  quality,  as  for  example,  **as 
good  as  C,"  '*  half-way  between  D  and  E,"  etc.  It  may 
be  well  to  assign  a  value  of  5,  4,  3,  2,  1  to  A,  B,  C,  D,  E, 
respectively. 

Consider  now  the  gradings  of  a  given  book  made  by  all 
the  individual  judges.  Is  agreement,  consistency,  or 
clearness  facilitated  by  the  use  of  these  concrete  speci- 
men scales  ?  Secure  the  total  value  of  each  book,  for  your 
own  rating,  by  summating  the  numerical  values  for  all 
the  qualities.  How  do  these  totals  differ  from  individual 
to  individual  and  from  book  to  book  ?  Distributing  such 
scores  in  a  surface  of  frequency,  what  distribution  is 
observed  ? 


EXERCISES  241 

If  the  various  qualities  are  not  equally  important,  how 
might  you  proceed  to  assign  appropriate  weights  to  the 
various  qualities,  so  as  to  secure  more  accurate  total 
scores  or  summation  values  for  each  book? 

What  special  difficulties  or  possible  sources  of  error 
arise  in  connection  with  the  use  of  such  rating  scales? 
How  eliminate  them  ? 


EXERCISE  VII 

General  Principles  of  Tests 

The  instructor  may  select,  from  the  general  equipment 
of  the  laboratory,  a  typical  array  of  tests.  Each  test  is 
administered  to  the  class,  and  the  method  of  scoring  and 
evaluating  the  results  is  discussed.  In  this  connection 
special  attention  may  well  be  given,  not  so  much  to  the 
results  of  the  tests,  but  rather  to  the  general  principles 
of  construction,  expression,  and  standardization  em- 
ployed. 

Faulty  tests  should  be  exhibited,  which  reveal  defects 
in  materials,  in  instructions,  in  technic,  in  scoring, 
in  interpretation,  etc.  In  this  way  the  difference  between 
a  ''test"  and  an  "instrument  of  measurement"  may  be 
made  clear. 

In  the  case  of  each  satisfactory  test,  consider  first 
the  method  of  construction — does  it  exemplify  the  Stand- 
ard Task,  Homogeneous  Material,  Graded  Tasks,  Mis- 
cellaneous Gradations,  Response  Values,  or  some  com- 
bination of  these,  or  some  new  principle,  or  some  ambigu- 
ous principle  ? 

Consider  now  the  method  in  which  the  results  of  the 
test  are  expressed.  Is  the  method  that  of  Original 
Scores,  Percentile  Units,  Distribution  Units,  Develop- 
mental Units,  or  Absolute  Units?  Are  any  new  or 
ambiguous  principles  revealed? 

242 


EXERCISES  243 

Students  may  be  assigned  the  task  of  planning  the 
development  of  a  new  test  on  one  or  more  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  construction.  In  such  cases  the  steps  necessary 
before  the  test  assumes  its  final  form  may  be  outlined  or 
described. 


EXERCISE  VIII 

Measuring  General  Competence 

A  study  of  various  tests  or  test  series  for  the  determina- 
tion of  ' '  general  intelligence ' '  may  be  made  at  this  point. 
For  general  class  purposes  it  is  more  convenient  to  use 
tests  that  are  suitable  for  group  procedure.  It  should 
ordinarily  be  made  clear  that  such  a  demonstration  as 
that  here  described  does  not  constitute  adequate  training 
in  the  use  of  such  tests,  but  represents  merely  a  demon- 
stration of  some  of  the  more  commonly  used  forms,  and 
a  comparison  of  them. 

After  several  forms  of  intelligence  tests  have  been 
used  with  all  the  members  of  the  class,  the  scores  in 
each  test  may  be  computed,  and  comparisons  made 
between  the  various  sets  of  results.  In  this  connection 
the  possible  results  or  influences  of  familiarity,  practice, 
differences  of  age,  education,  previous  occupation,  etc., 
may  be  considered. 

The  Army  Alpha  Test  will  be  one  suitable  form  for 

adults.     The  scores  achieved  by  members  of  the  class 

may  be  distributed  in  a  surface  of  frequency,  and  a 

study  made  of  their  range.    In  "Army  Mental  Tests," 

by  Yoakum  and  Yerkes  (Henry  Holt  &  Co.),  may  be 

found  various  tables  of  typical  results,  showing  scores 

for  various  occupations,  colleges,  college  classes,  ages, 

races,  and  similar  data.    This  book  also  contains  instruc- 

244 


EXERCISES  245 

tions  for  giving  and  scoring  the  Alpha  tests,  and  samples 
of  the  forms  to  be  used. 

The  Otis  Group  Tests  may  also  be  used  to  advantage. 
Although  they  are  in  general  not  difficult  enough  to 
afford  actual  differentiation  of  college  students,  this  fact 
in  itself  emphasizes  certain  important  facts  about  intel- 
ligence tests  and  their  use,  the  advantages  and  limita- 
tions of  various  forms,  and  other  related  points. 

Several  of  the  tests  described  in  "The  Mental  Survey*' 
by  Pintner  may  be  used  to  advantage,  as  special  tests, 
each  of  which  is  separately  standardized. 

In  "The  Psychological  Study  of  College  Students*'  by 
Carothers  {Archives  of  PsycJiology,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity) are  given  standard  instructions  and  norms  on  col- 
lege freshmen  in  Barnard  College.  Some  of  these  tests 
may  be  adapted  to  group  procedure,  but  in  general  it  will 
be  better  to  leave  these  tests  for  a  later  experiment  on 
psychographic  methods. 

If  the  instructor  should  desire  to  illustrate  some 
method  of  individual  examination,  the  Stanford  Kevision 
of  the  Binet-Simon  Tests  may  be  given  by  him  to  one 
or  more  members  of  the  class,  after  the  manner  of  a 
demonstration.  The  scores  of  the  individuals  examined 
by  this  method  may  be  compared  with  the  scores  received 
by  the  same  individuals  in  the  various  group  tests. 

The  various  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  group 
tests  as  contrasted  with  individual  examinations  may  be 
considered  in  detail.  Special  methods  for  the  mental 
examination  of  the  illiterate,  the  foreigner,  the  blind, 
and  the  deaf  may  also  be  considered  and  illustrated. 


EXERCISE  IX 

Measurement  of  Special  Aptitudes 

The  measurement  of  special  aptitudes,  as  distinguished 
from  general  competence  or  intelligence,  may  conven- 
iently be  illustrated  by  employing  the  following  materials 
and  methods. 

a.  Measures  of  Musical  Talent. — The  Seashore  tests 
for  musical  abilities,  including  Sense  of  Pitch,  Sense  of 
Intensity,  Sense  of  Time,  Sense  of  Consonance,  and 
Tonal  Memory.  These  may  be  secured  in  the  form  of 
phonograph  records  from  the  Columbia  Graphophone 
Company.  A  brief  manual  of  instructions  is  also  pro- 
vided, which  contains  norms  for  adults  and  for  8th  grade 
and  5th  grade  children. 

h.  Mechanical  Ahility. — The  Stenquist  Assembling 
Tests,  which  are  furnished  by  C.  II.  Stoelting  Company, 
Chicago,  afford  interesting  measures  of  the  ability  to 
handle  simple  mechanical  constructions.  Manual  of 
directions  is  issued  along  with  the  tests,  and  includes 
methods  of  scoring,  norms,  and  other  necessary  informa- 
tion. 

c.  Kelley  Construction  Test. — This  is  furnished  by 
Stoelting,  along  with  directions.  A  set  of  stereoscopic 
slides,  containing  the  scale  for  grading  is  also  required. 

d.  Motor  Tests. — Various  tests  of  motor  capacity,  such 
as  Steadiness,  Kate  of  Tapping,  Coordination,  and  so 
on,  are  described  in  Manual  of  Mental  and  Phys^ical 

246 


EXEKCISES  247 

^€5^5  by  Whipple  (Warwick  and  York).  Useful  tests 
to  employ  for  this  purpose  are  Grip,  Tapping  and  Coor- 
dination. Instruments  required  for  these  tests  are  fur- 
nished by  Stoelting. 

e.  Sensory  Tests. — Standard  tests  for  Visual  Acuity, 
Auditory  Acuity,  Color  Discrimination,  and  similar 
abilities  or  processes  are  described  in  Whipple 's  Manual. 
Tests  of  Visual  Acuity,  and  of  Color  Discrimination  may 
be  readily  used  if  the  necessary  materials  or  instruments 
are  available. 

To  give  all  these  tests  to  all  the  members  of  a  class 
would  require  a  very  great  deal  of  time.  Selections 
should  be  made  from  the  list  or  from  other  suitable 
materials,  and  typical  illustrations  given.  It  will  be 
found  instructive  to  compare,  by  correlation  or  other- 
wise, the  scores  attained  in  these  special  tests,  with  those 
made  in  the  tests  of  general  intelligence.  The  special 
tests  may  also  be  correlated  with  one  another.  In  this 
manner  the  special  character  of  these  tests  will  be 
emphasized. 


EXERCISE  X 

Measures  op  Knowledge  and  Skill 

The  Trade  Tests  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  illus- 
trating the  method  of  the  Sample.  Typical  trade  tests 
are  given  in  ''Trade  Tests,"  by  J.  C.  Chapman  (Henry 
Holt  &  Co.).  These  were  developed  by  the  Trade  Test 
Division  of  the  U.  S.  Army.  Some  of  them  relate  to 
occupations  which  may  be  more  or  less  familiar  to  some 
members  of  the  class,  and  these  occupations  may  be 
selected  for  the  purpose  of  this  exercise.  In  general  the 
following  tests  will  show  some  fairly  high  scores  among 
most  college  classes.  In  giving  the  tests,  follow  closely 
the  printed  instructions  for  administration  and  scoring : 


Oral 
Trade  Tests 


Tailor 

Butcher 

General  Carpenter 

Horseshoer 

Auto  Mechanic 


Picture 
Trade  Tests 


General  Carpenter 
Cobbler 

Harness  Maker 
Horseshoer 


Performance 
Trade  Tests 


These  are  not 
suited  to  general  lab- 
oratory use,  but  may 
be  described.  The  test 
for  Typist  may  be 
tried  out. 


In  considering  the  scores  in  these  various  trade  tests, 
is  there  any  correlation  between  the  various  tests  ?  How 
are  the  facts  to  be  explained?  Are  there  correlations 
between  scores  in  these  trade  tests  and  scores  previously 
made  in  intelligence  tests?    How  explain  the  facts? 

248 


EXERCISES  249 

Make  a  careful  study,  in  Chapman 's  book,  Trade  Tests, 
of  the  procedures  followed  in  developing  and  standard- 
izing these  trade  tests.  Now  choose  some  occupation  with 
which  you  are  familiar  and  which  finds  many  represen- 
tatives in  the  territory  in  which  you  are  living.  Describe 
the  way  in  which  you  would  go  about  developing  a  Pic- 
ture Trade  Test  for  this  occupation.  Outline  the  various 
steps  in  detail,  indicating  the  probable  difficulties  you 
would  encounter,  and  the  manner  in  which  these  difficul- 
ties should  be  met. 

Following  the  method  described  for  the  development 
of  Oral  Trade  Tests,  undertake  the  collection  of  a  set 
of  questions  for  the  occupation  you  have  chosen  to 
study.  Carry  out  the  steps  of  preliminary  and  final 
testing  of  the  questions,  calibrate  the  test,  and  assemble 
it  in  final  form.  Such  occupations  or  trades  as  the  fol- 
lowing will  provide  interesting  opportunity  for  such  an 
exercise:  Cook,  chamber-maid,  elevator  boy,  janitor, 
laundress,  nurse,  teamster,  barber,  policeman,  reporter. 

From  your  study  of  the  occupation  you  have  chosen, 
what  would  seem  to  be  the  relative  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  three  chief  forms  of  trade  tests — 
oral,  picture  and  performance  ?    Why  ? 


EXERCISE  XI 

Educational  Measurement 

1.  Drawing. — Each  student  makes  as  good  a  drawing 
as  possible  of  either  a  Church,  a  Person  or  a  Snow-fight. 
Each  then  examines  the  drawings  of  all  and  assigns  to 
each  specimen,  without  consultation  with  others,  a  rating 
or  grade  in  terms  of  general  excellence.  Compare  the 
ratings  given  by  different  judges  to  the  same  picture. 
How  do  they  agree,  how  intelligible,  precise,  and  quanti- 
tatively comparable  are  they,  how  exact  and  definite  as 
measures  of  drawing  excellence  ? 

Each  student  is  now  provided  with  a  copy  of  Thorn- 
dike's  Drawing  Scale,  and  rates  each  specimen  on  this 
scale,  following  the  standard  instructions.  Ratings  on 
this  basis  are  now  compared.  What  are  the  advantages 
of  such  a  Product  Scale?  How  might  this  one  be  im- 
proved? To  what  practical  uses  might  such  a  scale  be 
put? 

2.  Handwriting. — Specimens  of  handwriting  are  pro- 
vided, and  these  are  graded  first  on  the  ordinary  per  cent 
method  commonly  used  in  grading  school  exercises. 
Some  standard  handwriting  scale  is  then  used,  and  the 
specimens  measured  by  the  use  of  this  scale.  The 
advantages  and  practical  uses  of  such  a  scale  may  then 
be  considered,  in  the  light  of  the  experimental  results. 

3.  Reading. — Copies  of  the  Burgess  Reading  Scale  or 
of  the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale  are  provided, 

250 


EXERCISES  251 

and  all  the  members  of  the  class  are  put  through  the 
test  for  the  measurement  of  ability  in  silent  reading. 
What  particular  problems  come  up  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  such  scales  and  the  interpretation  of  results? 
A  comparison  of  scores  in  these  tests  may  be  made  with 
the  scores  in  the  intelligence  tests  previously  accumu- 
lated.   What  relations  are  suggested? 

4.  Sewing. — The  Murdoch  Sewing  Scale  may  be  exhib- 
ited and  its  method  of  construction  studied. 

5.  Composition. — The  Hillegas  Composition  Scale  may 
also  be  studied  to  advantage,  especially  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  principles  involved  in  its  construction.  If 
time  allows,  each  student  may  be  asked  to  prepare  a 
composition  suitable  for  measurement  on  such  a  scale. 
These  compositions  may  then  be  graded  in  the  usual 
fashion  and  these  grades  compared  with  ratings  made 
when  the  scale  is  used. 

6.  Considering  the  educational  scales  that  have  now 
been  studied,  consider  them  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  principles  of  construction  and  the  principles  of 
expression  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  Which  principles 
are  illustrated  in  these  educational  scales  ?  Are  any  new 
principles  revealed? 


EXERCISE  XII 

The  Correlation  Methods 

In  the  first  Table  are  given  data  concerning  eighteen 
salesgirls  in  a  department  store.  For  each  are  given 
the  following:  Age,  Years  of  Selling  Experience, 
Weekly  Salary,  Average  "Weekly  Bonus  Earned,  Educa- 
tion, Manager's  Estimate  of  Sales  Ability  (Excellent, 
Good,  Fair,  Poor),  Salesmanship  Instructor's  Estimate 
of  Sales  Ability  (Rank  in  the  Group),  Instructor's  Esti- 
mate of  Intelligence  (Rank  in  the  Group).  In  some 
cases  several  individuals  are  given  the  same  rating,  indi- 
cating estimated  equality.  Sign  +  means  somewhat 
better  than  the  term  assigned. 

While  these  data  leave  much  to  be  desired  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  an  objective  criterion  of  sales 
ability,  they  represent  all  the  information  available  in  the 
actual  case.  Suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  find  tests 
that  indicate  sales  ability,  for  the  selection  of  new  appli- 
cants. The  first  step  will  be  to  find  tests  that  correlate 
well  with  such  ability  in  the  case  of  employees  actually 
on  the  job.  In  order  to  correlate  or  otherwise  compare 
test  scores  and  sales  ability,  some  more  or  less  objective 
criterion  of  sales  ability  must  first  be  secured.  Use  any 
of  the  data  given,  or  all.  Treat  each  item  separately  or 
combine  some  or  all  of  them.  It  will  be  well  to  discuss 
the  general  problem  first,  and  then  for  different  members 
of  the  class  to  adopt  different  sorts  of  objective  criteria. 

262 


EXERCISES 


253 


Education 

1 

W 

■73 
(M 

bD   <D 

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t>  t^  t^ 

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CO  t^   CO 

Estimate 
For  Intel* 
ligence 

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1— 1 

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rH   iH 

lO 
rj<  Ci  id 

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rH   iH 

Instructor's 
For  Sales 
Ability 

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c3    M     M     O    O    O    O    O    c3    o    O    O    M    <^    O    M  ^><  _c3 

Average 
Weekly 
Bonus 

•  o 
.  o 

•  lO  lO  o 

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Years 
of 

Selling 

lO  CO 

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254     JUDGING  HUMAN  CHAEACTEE 

The  results  in  the  different  cases  may  then  be  compared 
after  the  next  step  is  completed. 

In  Opposites,  Substitution,  Analogies,  Word  Recon- 
struction, and  Cube  Imitation  the  score  is  the  amount  of 
work  or  number  of  items  accomplished  under  fixed  condi- 
tions of  time  or  trials.  In  Color  Naming  the  score  is  the 
time  required  for  a  fixed  task. 

Scores  of  Salesgirls  in  Several  Tests 


Name 

Naming 
Opposites 

Giving 
Anal- 
ogies 

Word 
Recon- 
struction 

Substi- 
tution 

Color 
Naming 

Cube 
Imitation 

A 

30 

9 

2 

89 

66.2 

4 

B 

33 

15 

4 

86 

67.8 

4 

C 

31 

19 

4 

95 

55.2 

7 

D 

24 

20 

5 

68 

60.8 

5 

E 

21 

18 

4 

76 

84.2 

6 

F 

34 

8 

3 

33 

66.0 

4 

G 

26 

13 

5 

70 

80.0 

4 

K 

23 

8 

6 

50 

71.2 

6 

I 

40 

36 

6 

83 

56.0 

9 

J 

38 

22 

8 

100 

57.0 

7 

K 

20 

14 

3 

89 

55.5 

6 

L 

15 

7 

3 

75 

81.0 

6 

M 

21 

13 

3 

72 

81.5 

5 

N 

29 

15 

5 

77 

75.5 

7 

0 

26 

31 

11 

84 

55.4 

7 

P 

40 

32 

6 

55 

68.0 

8 

Q 

12 

6 

1 

77 

71.8 

5 

R 

21 

10 

3 

60 

57.5 

6 

In  the  preceding  table  are  given  the  results  when  sev- 
eral tests  were  applied  to  these  individuals.  In  each 
case  the  individuals  are  given  their  scores  in  each  test. 


EXERCISES  255 

By  comparing  these  tests  results  with  the  chosen  cri- 
terion derived  from  the  foregoing  table,  select  a  team 
of  tests  that  seem  to  indicate  best  of  all  the  relative 
sales  ability  of  these  individuals.  With  the  advice  of 
the  instructor,  various  methods  of  comparison  may  be 
employed. 

Do  you  find  that  some  of  these  tests  are  better  indica- 
tors of  sales  ability  than  are  others?  How  would  you 
select  the  best  team  of  three  tests?  Would  you  give 
each  of  these  three  equal  value  in  computing  the  total 
score  of  an  individual?  If  not,  how  would  you  weigh 
the  various  tests? 

Look  up,  in  books  on  statistical  methods,  the  methods 
for  partial  and  multiple  correlation,  and  indicate  the  way 
in  which  these  methods  might  be  put  to  significant  use 
in  such  an  investigation  as  this. 

What  seems  to  you,  from  your  experience  with  these 
results,  to  be  some  of  the  principal  difficulties  encoun- 
tered in  the  application  of  the  correlation  methods  to 
problems  of  employment  and  placement  ?  ^ 

1  The  data  used  in  this  exercise  were  secured  in  a  study  con- 
ducted by  Elsie  Oschrin  Bregman.  After  completing  the  exercise 
it  will  be  interesting  to  read  "Vocational  Tests  for  Retail  Sales- 
women," by  Elsie  Oschrin,  in  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  June, 
1918.  For  further  examples  consult  Employment  Psychology,  by 
H.  C.  Link,  and  various  other  references  given  in  the  Bibliography 
preceding  this  Appendix. 


EXERCISE  XIII 

Temperamental  Characteristics 

The  following  experiments,  selected  from  the  many 
available  ones,  may  readily  be  planned  for  group  or 
individual  experiments.  The  results  in  each  case  may 
be  compared  with  the  results  of  preceding  tests  and  exer- 
cises, as  with  self -estimates,  judgments  of  associates, 
intelligence  tests,  tests  of  special  aptitudes,  and  so  on. 
In  general  the  plan  will  be  to  become  familiar  with  the 
proposed  method  by  actual  use  of  it,  and  to  discuss  its 
merits  and  shortcomings. 

1.  Downey  Will  Profile. — For  the  determination  and 
measurement  of  the  volitional  pattern.  Necessary  blanks, 
instructions,  materials  and  norms,  either  for  the  indi- 
vidual form  or  for  the  group  from  of  this  test,  are  to  be 
secured  from  the  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers,  New 
York. 

2.  Moore  Aggressiveness  Test. — A  description  of  the 
methods  and  results  of  this  series  of  tests  is  to  be  found 
in  '^The  Measurement  of  Aggressiveness,"  by  H.  C. 
Moore,  Journal  of  Applied  PsycJiology,  June,  1921. 

3.  Kent-Rosanoff  Association  Test. — Instructions  and 
lists  of  stimulus  words,  with  table  of  results  are  to  be 
found  in  **A  Study  of  Association  in  Insanity,"  by 
Kent  and  Rosanoff,  American  Journal  of  Insanity, 
Numbers  1  and  2,  1910.  The  method  is  also  described 
in  Whipple's  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  Vol. 

256 


EXERCISES  257 

2,  Test  33A,  page  53,  with  a  full  discussion  of  tlie  results 
secured  by  this  method  under  various  circumstances. 

4.  Suggestibility  Tests. — In  Chapter  X  of  Whipple's 
Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests  five  tests  are 
described  and  discussed  in  detail.  The  materials  needed 
for  these  tests  are  furnished  by  C.  H.  Stocking  Com- 
pany, 3037  Carroll  Avenue,  Chicago.  See  also  "Indi- 
vidual and  Sex  Differences  in  Suggestibility,"  by  War- 
ner Brown,  University  of  California  PuMications  in 
Psychology,  Vol.  II,  No.  6,  July,  1916. 

5.  Tests  of  Mental  Balance. — Consult  Chapter  VII  of 
Wells,  Mental  Adjustments  (Appleton,  1917),  for  ac- 
counts of  various  methods  of  attempting  to  measure 
mental  balance  and  moral  perception.  Fernald's  test, 
or  some  adaptation  of  the  original  experiments  reported 
by  Wells,  may  be  used  as  a  class  exercise. 


EXERCISE  XIV 

PSYCHOQRAPHIC  METHODS 

1.  In  the  foregoing  exercises  many  measurements  of 
each  member  of  the  class  have  been  secured.  Some  of 
these  are  not  directly  comparable  with  the  others,  but 
several  of  them  can  be  brought  together  for  purposes 
of  psychographic  presentation  and  analysis.  Thus  the 
Intelligence  tests,  the  tests  of  Musical  Ability,  of  Mechan- 
ical Ability,  the  Motor  and  Sensory  tests,  the  Will  Pro- 
file, the  Association  Test  and  some  of  the  Suggestibility 
tests,  all  afford  records  which  can  be  expressed  in  ap- 
proximately comparable  form.  Select  some  form  of 
expression,  as  Mental  Age,  Percentile,  or  Distribution 
Units,  and  express  your  own  records  in  each  test  in  this 
form. 

Now  construct  a  psychographic  chart  similar  to  those 
illustrated  in  Chapter  XII,  and  record  thereon  your 
own  standing  in  each  of  the  tests  you  have  selected. 
This  will  give  a  partial  profile  or  psychographic  record 
of  your  abilities  and  characteristics.  What  in  general 
does  the  chart  tell  you  about  your  mental  equipment 
as  shown  by  the  tests  ?  Compare  your  own  profile  with 
those  of  other  members  of  the  class.  Discuss  the  dif- 
ferences and  resemblances  found.  To  what  practical 
use  might  such  data  be  put?  To  what  extent  do  they 
represent  a  complete  analysis  of  your  personality? 

2.  Some  of  the  general  test  systems,  as  the  Alpha  test 

268 


EXERCISES  259 

for  example,  consist  of  several  different  tests  which  may- 
be independently  scored  and  which  seem  to  involve  some- 
what different  types  of  work.  The  total  score  in  such 
a  test  system  may  be  analyzed  into  its  component  scores, 
and  these  partial  scores  may  be  represented  in  psycho- 
graphic  form.  The  article  by  Yerkes  and  Cobb,  given  in 
the  Bibliography  for  Chapter  XII,  may  be  consulted  in 
this  connection  as  an  interesting  illustration  of  the 
method. 

3.  In  Carothers,  Psychological  Study  of  College  Stu- 
dents, will  be  found  an  array  of  tests  described,  from 
the  Woodworth- Wells  Series.  Instructions  for  giving, 
scoring,  and  evaluating  each  test  are  given,  and  norms  on 
college  students  are  also  presented.  Each  member  of 
the  class  may  be  given  this  array  of  tests  and  a  psycho- 
graphic  record  and  analysis  made  of  the  results.  Test 
blanks  for  this  series  may  be  secured  from  Stoelting. 


EXERCISE  XV 

Examination  of  an  Individual 

A  stranger,  either  child  or  adult,  may  be  brought 
before  the  class  for  examination,  and  a  very  elaborate 
experiment  planned.  This  experiment  may  of  course 
be  abbreviated  according  to  the  time  available. 

1.  On  the  basis  of  the  appearance  and  manner  of 
the  subject  each  student  records  his  impression  of  the 
individual's  intelligence,  and  of  such  other  traits  as 
may  be  agreed  upon.  These  records  may  later  be  com- 
pared with  one  another  and  with  the  results  of  the 
examination. 

2.  Each  student  may  be  allowed  to  interview  the  sub- 
ject, briefly,  and  record  his  estimates  of  the  individual's 
characteristics  on  the  basis  of  this  interview. 

3.  Selected  intelligence  tests  may  be  given  the  sub- 
ject, in  the  presence  of  the  class,  preferably  an  array 
of  tests  each  of  which  can  be  independently  scored  and 
recorded.  One  of  the  miscellaneous  scales  as  the  Stan- 
ford-Revision, may  also  be  used  for  a  summary  intelli- 
gence score. 

4.  Tests  of  special  aptitudes,  such  as  the  Musical  Talent 
tests,  the  Stenquist  Construction  Test,  and  some  of  the 
Motor  and  Sensory  tests  should  also  be  employed. 

5.  Educational  Tests,  for  which  there  are  norms  which 

make  the  results  comparable  with  the  other  measure- 

260 


EXERCISES  261 

ments,  may  also  be  used  if  time  permits  or  if  the  subject 
can  appear  on  several  occasions. 

6.  Selected  temperamental  tests,  as  for  example  the 
Will  Profile,  The  Kent-Rosanoff  and  some  of  the  Sug- 
gestibility tests  may  also  be  given  with  profit. 

On  the  basis  of  these  results,  each  student,  or  the  class 
in  joint  enterprise,  now  prepares  a  psychographic  record 
of  the  results  of  the  complete  examination.  Discussion 
may  center  about  the  significance  of  such  an  intensive 
study  of  the  individual,  and  the  practical  uses  to  which 
the  results  may  be  put. 

This  experiment  requires,  in  the  full  form  here  de- 
scribed, a  great  deal  of  time,  care,  patience,  and  expert- 
ness.  If  only  one  afternoon  or  forenoon  is  available,  the 
experiment  should  be  abbreviated  in  such  a  fashion  that 
whatever  measurements  are  made  may  be  made  under 
favorable  conditions  and  may  conform  to  the  most  rigor- 
ous standards  of  technic. 


EXERCISE  XVI 

Installation  of  Employment  Supervisor 

Assume  that  you  either  own  or  have  direct  charge 
of  a  business  which  has  grown  to  such  proportions  that 
it  seems  desirable  to  establish,  at  least  in  a  preliminary- 
way,  a  special  department  of  personnel  direction.  In 
your  capacity  as  owner  or  director  you  have  just  em- 
ployed a  college  graduate  of  high  general  intelligence, 
a  general  familiarity  with  your  line  of  business,  and  a 
personal  interest  in  people.  He  is  to  take  charge  of  the 
employment  and  placement  of  all  the  factory  operatives 
or  of  all  the  clerical  personnel. 

1.  What  directions  would  you  give  him  in  connection 
with  the  use  of  letters  of  application  and  the  development 
of  application  forms,  so  that  these  materials  should 
afford  him  the  greatest  amount  of  reliable  data,  for  his 
guidance  ? 

2.  What  practice  or  training  would  you  prescribe  in 
order  to  ensure  the  correspondence  of  his  judgments  with 
what  experience  has  shown  you  to  be  the  best  general 
policy  in  the  selection  of  individuals  and  their  placement 
in  the  organization? 

3.  What  devices  and  methods  would  you  recommend 
to  him,  in  order  to  help  him  get  the  maximum  amount  of 
reliable  information  from  letters  of  reference  and  testi- 
monials ? 

262 


EXERCISES  2(53 

4.  What  general  principles,  useful  suggestions,  and 
particular  cautions  would  you  give  him  in  order  to 
improve  his  interviewing  of  foremen  and  supervisors 
regarding  job  requirements? 

5.  What  helpful  suggestions  would  you  give  him  in 
order  to  increase  the  accuracy  and  effectiveness  of  his 
personal  interviews  with  candidates  for  employment  ? 

6.  What  special  sources  of  error  should  he  learn  to 
take  into  account  in  evaluating  the  testimony  of  others 
or  in  rendering  judgments  of  his  own,  concerning  the 
characteristics  of  other  people? 

7.  If  the  workers  whom  he  is  to  select  and  place  should 
have  fairly  definite  degrees  of  general  intelligence,  what 
group  tests  might  he  well  undertake  to  have  in  readiness 
for  the  examination  of  applicants  in  this  respect? 

8.  How  in  general  should  he  proceed  to  select  special 
tests  which  would  make  it  possible  to  determine  whether 
a  given  applicant  should,  for  most  efficient  and  satisfying 
work,  be  assigned  to  the  group  of  clerical  workers  or  to 
the  group  of  factory  operatives? 

9.  If  it  should  seem  best  for  him  to  pursue  a  special 
course  of  instruction  or  training  in  vocational  and  indus- 
trial psychology  or  in  personnel  methods  and  human 
engineering,  through  home  study,  prescribe  for  him  a 
series  of  books  dealing  in  a  valuable  way  with  such 
topics  as — statistical  methods,  employment  practice, 
vocational  psychology,  character  study,  mental  measure- 
ment, social  psychology,  industrial  management,  job 
analysis,  labor  problems,  wage  adjustments,  office  man- 
agement, business  organization.  If  you  are  not  familiar 
with  these  fields  consult  a  reference  librarian  or  special- 
ists in  the  various  fields. 


INDEX 


Absolute  units,  118 
Aggi-essiveness,  188 
Allen,  176 
Allport,  57,  216 
Analogies,  124 
Analog}^,  method,  of  152 
Analysis, 

—  of  individuals,  205 

—  of  interviews,  71 

—  of  jobs,  201 

—  of  self,  45,  231 

—  vocational,  142 
Anderson,  43 
Andrews,  29 
Appendices,  215,  225 
Application,  letters  of,  9,  226 

—  analysis  of,  29 
Applications,    judgments    of, 

10  ff. 
■ — improvements  in,  24 
Aptitudes,  139  ff.,  249 
Association,  method  of,   191, 

196 

—  tests  of,  128 
Attitudes,  139  {£. 
Aviators,  tests  of,  30,  176 

Bagby,  176 

Balance,  183,  191,  204 

Bibliography,  215  ff. 

Bills,  175 

Binet,  66,  125,  186 

Binet-Simon  tests,  126 


265 


Blacksmith,  tests  for,  156 
Brown,  196,  257 
Burtt,  176 

Carney,  176 
Carothers,  245,  259 
Cattell,  77 
Chapman,  175,  248 
Character,    analysis    of,    161, 
181,  228,  259 

—  judgment  of,  2 

—  meaning  of,  2 

—  types  of,  191 

Clerical  workers,  tests  of,  162 
Cobb,  211 

Competence,  general  and  spe- 
cial, 139 

—  measurement  of,  112>  244 
Complexes,  192 
Comptometers,  tests  of,  175 
Consistency,  hierarchy  of,  78 

—  promotion  of,  102 
Construction,  of  tests,  116 
Correlation,  meaning  of,  16 

—  method   of,   152,   161,   252 

—  of  judgments,  17,   22,  38, 

40,  56,  95 

—  of  tests,  143,  166,  172,  252 
Courtis,  211 

Demonstrations,  226  ff. 
Developmental  units,  120 
Distribution  units,  118 


266 


INDEX 


Dockeray,  176 

Domestic   worker,   form    for, 

108 
Downey,  186,  210,  256 
Duck,  175 

Educational  measurement,  158, 

253 
Emotion,  196 
Employees,  tests  of,  143,  166, 

171,  172 
Engineers,  tests  of,  176 
Errors,  of  judgment,  48  If. 

—  sources  of,  91 
Estimates,  of  self,  45  fi. 
Exercises,  226  ff. 
Experiments,  with  employees, 

166 

—  with  interviews,  62 

—  with  letters,  12,  20 

—  with  photographs,  34,  42 

—  with  self -analysis,  48 
Expression,  methods  of,  117 
Eye-movements,  189 

Folsom,  83 
Fontegne,  176 
Form,  a  model,  108 
Fortune  telling,  6 
Franzen,  54 

Gates,  131 
Graded  tasks,  116 
Graphology,  185 
Group  tests,  135 
Guidance,  141 

Handwriting,  measurement  of, 

129 
—  significance  of,  185 


Head,  176 

Healy,  147 

Henmon,  176 

Hierarchy,  of  consistency,  78 

Hillegas,  251 

Hollingworth,  5,  175 

Homogeneous  materials,  116 

Hoover,  176 

Hull,  185 

Individual  tests,  135 
Inquiry  forms,  108 
Inspectors,  tests  of,  171 
Instability,  204 
Intelligence,  correlations  with, 
35,  57,  98,  174 

—  in  photogi'aphs,  35,  42 

—  judgments  of,  35,  57,  98 

—  tests  of,  140 
Interview,  methods  of,  72 

—  reliability  of,  62,237 
Inventory,    psychoneurotic, 

183 
Irle,  94 
Isaacs,  176 

Job  analysis,  201 

Jones,  176 

Judges,  qualification  of,  55 

Judgment,  and  perception,  1 

—  consistency  of,  16 

—  data  of,  4 

—  errors  of,  91 

—  methods  of,  8 

—  of  self,  45 

—  reliability  of,  20,  36 

—  variability  of,  15,  34,  49, 

74,  79,  85 
Jung,  191 


INDEX 


267 


Kelley,  246 
Kent,  128,  261 
Kitson,  211 
Knight,  54 
Kohs,  94 
Kraepelin,  212 
Krais,  176 


Laboratory  exercises,  225  ff. 

Lahy,  175 

Letters,  of  application,  9,  226 

Link,  73,  171,  175,  181,  255 

Lipmann,  176 

Longh,   175 


Magic,    3 
Mann,  87 
Marcus,  175 
McCall,  250 
McComas,  176 

Measurement,    in    education, 
158,  253 

—  of  aggressiveness,  188 

—  of  handwriting,  129 
— of  suggestibility,  195 

—  of  will  pattern,  186 
Mechanical  ability,  148 
Methods,  of  construction,  116 

—  of  expression,  117 

—  of  measurement,  112 
Miner,  81,  182 
Miniature,  method  of,  151 
Miscellaneous  gradations,  116 
Montgomery,  185 

Moods,  194,  196 
Moore,  188,  256 


Moral  traits,  181 
Motor  men,  tests  of,  176 
Muensterberg,  176 
Murdoch,  251 
Music,  148 

Nead,  176 

Norsworthy,  77 

Operators,  tests  of,  176 
Organism,  quality  of,  96 
Original  units,  117 
Oschrin-Bregman,    172,    175, 

255 
Otis,  147,  176,  245 

Percentile  units,  117 
Photographs,  character  in,  33 

—  judgments  of,  34,  228 

—  value  of,  39 
Picture  tests,  157 
Pintner,  42,  147,  230,  245 
Poffenberger,  20,  175 
Pressey,  197 

Printers,  tests  of,  176 
Production  records,  165 
Profile,  186,  201,  205,  210 
Psychiatry,  methods  of,  100 
Psychogi-aph,  201  ff.,  258 
Psychoneurotic  inventory,  183 

Qualities,  temperamental,  145 

Rating  scales,  103,  182,  239 
Recommendations,    value    of, 

74,  237 
Records,  meaning  of,  130 

—  of  production,  162 
Response  values,  116 


268 


INDEX 


Rice,  149 

Rogers,  166,  175 
Rosanoff,  128,  256 
Rossolimo,   210 
Rugg,   104,   110 

Sachs,  176 

Sales  clerks,  tests  of,  172,  176 

Salesmen,  study  of,  26 

Sample,  method  of,  151 

Scales,  for  rating,  103,  239 

Scattering,  204 

Scott,  68,  104,  176,  182 

Seashore,  148,  176,  211 

Self -analysis,  45,  48,  231 

Simon,  125 

Slawson,  87 

Solari,  176 

Sommer,  213 

Stamm,  176 

Standards,  of  report,  99 

Standard  Task,  116 

Stenographers,  tests  of,  166 

Stenquist,  148,  246 

Stern,  176,  195,  210 

Stratton,  176 

Suggestibility,  195 

Technic,  improvements  in,  23, 

58,  69,  109" 
Temperament,  145,  256 

—  diagnosis  of,  179  ff. 
Tendencies,  of  judgment,  91 
Terman,  218 
Testimonials,  value  of,  74,  97, 

237 
Tests,  and  measures,  113 

—  choice  of,  131,  162 

—  construction  of,  116 


—  correlations  of,  143 

—  meaning  of,  130 

—  nature  of,  114,  242 

—  of    employees,    142,    154, 

164,  166,  171,  172 

—  of  interviewers,   62 

—  of  judgment,  11,  20 

—  of  recommendations,    74 

—  of  temperament,    179   ff. 

—  samples  of,  119  ff. 

—  types  of,  116,  135,  147,  242 
Thorndike,  30,  93,  147,  174, 

176,  250 
Thurstone,   175 
Toulouse,  201 
Trabue,  147,  176 
Trade  tests,  148,  154,  248 
Traits,  objective  and  subjec- 
tive, 78,  84 
Types,    of    association    reac- 
tion, 192 

—  of  character,  191 
Typists,  tests  of,  166 

Units,  of  measurement,  117 

Variability,     elimination     of, 

100 
Vartanian,   20 
Vocational  analysis,  151 

Washburn,  196 
Wells,  26,  147,  193,  250 
Whipple,  195,  247 
Will  profile,  186 
Woodworth,  147,  183 


Yerkes,  211 
Yoakum,  244 


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